Public order offences: How feasible is their applicability to online hate?

Iñigo Gordon Benito

doi:10.35295/osls.iisl.1905

Autores

Iñigo Gordon Benito UNESCO Chair for Human Rights and Public Authorities, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU) https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1000-960X

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.35295/osls.iisl.1905

Palavras-chave:

Public order, hate crimes, hate speech, public disturbances, cyberspace

Resumo

As an area of law in the UK, public order offences are almost entirely useless on social media. This set of offences (ss. 4, 4A and 5 of the Public Order Act 1986) was aimed to address any behaviour or expressive activities, either oral or written, carried out in a context of physical proximity to the victim. In principle, the foundational base of public order offences runs the risk of becoming blurred if we extend their applicability to hateful messages online and, therefore, to any impersonal way of acting. Consequently, only 13% and 14% of the hate crimes committed online in 2016/17 and 2017/18 in England & Wales involved public order offences. Therefore, there is a certain resistance based on the adequacy of these offences to the online environment without requiring the message to be audible or visible to someone, as a matter of immediacy/proximity. We will explain how this glimmer of hope has lasted over time amid fierce opposition to broaden the scope of application of public order offences beyond traditional public forums, such as disturbances triggering in a city's main square.

Downloads

Não há dados estatísticos.

Metrics

Views 595
Downloads:
14(6)_Gordon_Benito_OSLS (English) 112
XML_14(6)_Gordon_Benito_OSLS (English) 9

Biografia do Autor

Iñigo Gordon Benito, UNESCO Chair for Human Rights and Public Authorities, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU)

Iñigo GORDON BENITO is a Lecturer in Criminal law and a member of the UNESCO Chair for Human Rights and Public Authorities of the University of the Basque Country (http://katedraddhh.eus/en/equipo/equipo.php). His research activity is focused on hate crimes, hate speech and online identity theft. In November 2021, he defended his doctoral thesis entitled «Hate crimes and cyberhate in the Spanish Criminal Code. Special attention devoted to the generic aggravating circumstance of Article 22.4 and the aggravated subtype of Article 510.3». He is currently part of the Hate Crime Research Group working team, funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation, which runs from 1 September 2021 to 1 September 2025 (Title of the Project: Hate crimes in Spain: pending challenges; Reference: I+D+I PID2020-115320GB-100). In 2018 he carried out a research stay at Oxford Brookes University (UK). In April 2021, he carried out a new research stay at the Max Planck Institute for the Study of Crime, Security and Law (Germany). He is a hired postdoctoral researcher as of 26 June 2022. He has been certified as an Assistant Lecturer/Professor in May 2023. In June 2023, he published his book “Hate crimes and cyberhate. A review of the possibilities of criminal filtering of speech through Articles 22.4 and 510 of the Spanish Criminal Code” with the publishing house Tirant lo Blanch.

Referências

Bakalis, C., 2018. Rethinking cyberhate laws, Information & Communications Technology Law [online], 27(1), 86–110. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/13600834.2017.1393934 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13600834.2017.1393934

Barker, K., and Jurasz, O., 2019. Online misogyny as a hate crime. A challenge for legal regulation? [online] Abingdon/New York: Routledge. Available at: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429956805 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429956805

Card, R., 2000. Public order law. Bristol: Jordans.

Card, R., and Ward, R., 1994. The Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994. Bristol: Jordans.

Chalmers, J., and Leverick, F., eds., 2016. Gordon’s Criminal law of Scotland. Vol. II (4th ed.). Edinburgh: W. Green.

Channing, I., 2015. The police and the expansion of Public Order Law in Britain, 1829–2014 [online]. Abingdon/New York: Routledge. Available at: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203082522 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203082522

Christie, M., 1990. Breach of the peace. Edinburgh: Butterworths.

CPS, 2022. Public order offences incorporating the charging standard [online]. Available at: https://www.cps.gov.uk/legal-guidance/public-order-offences-incorporating-charging-standard

Cross, C., 1961. The fascists in Britain. Tiptree: Barrie and Rockliff.

Dickey, A., 1968a. English law and incitement to racial hatred. Race & Class [online], 9(3), 311–329. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/030639686800900303 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/030639686800900303

Dickey, A., 1968b. English law and race defamation. New York Law Forum, 14(1), 9–32. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/030639686800900303

Dickey, A., 1972. Anti-incitement legislation in Britain and Northern Ireland. Patterns of Prejudice [online], 1(2), 133–138. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.1972.9975090 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.1972.9975090

Dickey, A., 1973. The law on incitement to racial hatred. Patterns of Prejudice [online], 7(4), 6–10. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/0031322X.1973.9969134 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0031322X.1973.9969134

Duff, R.A., 2007. Answering for crime. Responsibility and liability on the Criminal law [online]. Oxford/Portland: Hart. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199542895.003.0006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199542895.003.0006

Geach, N., and Haralambous, N., 2009. Regulating harassment: is the law fit for the social networking age? Journal of Criminal Law [online], 73(3), 241–257. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1350/jcla.2009.73.3.571 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1350/jcla.2009.73.3.571

Gordon Benito, I., 2023a. Online harassment and cyberstalking. A case study, Sortuz: Oñati Journal of Emergent Socio-Legal Studies [online], 13(2), 242–257. Available at: https://opo.iisj.net/index.php/sortuz/article/view/1770

Gordon Benito, I., 2023b. Online hate and the contentious case of stirring up hatred offences. Oñati Socio-Legal Series [online], 13(5), 1734–1755. Available at: https://doi.org/10.35295/osls.iisl.1744 DOI: https://doi.org/10.35295/osls.iisl.1744

Hanes, E., and Machin, S., 2014. Hate crime in the wake of terror attacks: evidence from 7/7 and 9/11. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice [online], 30(3), 247–267. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986214536665 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986214536665

Home Office, 1980. Review of the Public Order Act 1936 and related legislation (Cmnd. 7891). London: HMSO.

Home Office, 1981. Racial attacks. Report of a Home Office study. London: HMSO.

Home Office, 1985. Review of Public Order Law (Cmnd. 9510). London: HMSO.

Home Office, 2018. Hate crime. England and Wales, 2017/18 (statistical bulletin 20/18) [online]. London: HMSO. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/748598/hate-crime-1718-hosb2018.pdf

Iganski, P., 2008. ‘Hate crime’ and the city [online]. Bristol: Policy Press. Available at: https://doi.org/10.46692/9781847423573 DOI: https://doi.org/10.46692/9781847423573

Kilday, A.M., 2018. Crime in Scotland 1660-1960: the violent North? [online] Abingdon/New York: Routledge. Available at: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315767352 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315767352

Laverick, W., and Joyce, P., 2019. Racial and religious hate crime: The UK from 1945 to Brexit [online]. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-21317-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-21317-6

Law Commission, 1983. Offences relating to public order (Law Com. No. 123) [online]. London: HMSO. Available at: https://cloud-platform-e218f50a4812967ba1215eaecede923f.s3.amazonaws.com/uploads/sites/30/2016/07/LC.-123-CRIMINAL-LAW-OFFENCES-RELATING-TO-PUBLIC-ORDER.pdf

Law Commission, 2018. Abusive and offensive online communications: a scoping report (Law Com. No. 381) [online]. London: HMSO. Available at: https://s3-eu-west-2.amazonaws.com/cloud-platform-e218f50a4812967ba1215eaecede923f/uploads/sites/30/2018/10/6_5039_LC_Online_Comms_Report_FINAL_291018_WEB.pdf

Law Commission, 2020. Hate crime laws. A consultation paper (Consultation Paper No. 250) [online], London: HMSO. Available at: https://cloud-platform-e218f50a4812967ba1215eaecede923f.s3.amazonaws.com/uploads/sites/30/2020/10/Hate-crime-final-report.pdf

Leopold, P.M., 1977. Incitement to hatred. The history of a controversial criminal offence. Public Law, 389–405.

Lester, A., and Bindman, G., 1972. Race and law. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.

Marrinan, D., 2020. Hate crime legislation in Northern Ireland. Independent review [online]. Belfast: Department of Justice (NI). Available at: https://www.justice-ni.gov.uk/sites/default/files/publications/justice/hate-crime-review.pdf

McVeigh, R., 2018. Incitement to hatred in Northern Ireland [online]. Belfast: Equality Coalition. Available at: https://cain.ulster.ac.uk/othelem/organ/ec/2018-04-27_McVeigh_Hatred.pdf

Neller, J., 2023. Stirring up hatred. Myth, identity and order in the regulation of hate speech [online]. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-19242-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-19242-5

Newman, C., 2008. Offensive picture on the internet later shown to complainant by a third-party causing distress. Journal of Criminal Law, 72(6), 481–484.

O’Neill, A., 2017. Hate crime. England and Wales, 2016/17 (statistical bulletin 17/17) [online]. 17 October. London: HMSO. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/652136/hate-crime-1617-hosb1717.pdf

Robertson, G., 1993. Freedom, the individual and the law. 7th ed. London/New York: Penguin Books.

Rowbottom, J., 2012. To rant, vent and converse: protecting low-level digital speech. Cambridge Law Journal [online], 71(2), 355–383. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008197312000529 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008197312000529

Rowbottom, J., 2017. Crime and communication: do legal controls leave enough space for freedom of expression? In: D. Mangan and L. Gillies, eds., The legal challenges of social media [online]. Cheltenham/Northampton: Edward Elgar, 37–60. Available at: https://doi.org/10.4337/9781785364518.00016 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4337/9781785364518.00016

Scarman, L., 1975. The Red Lion Square disorders of 15 June 1974: report of inquiry (Cmnd. 5919) [online]. London: HMSO. Available at: https://www.ucpi.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/DOC088.pdf

Scarman, L., 1981. The Scarman report: The Brixton disorders, 10–12 April 1981 (Cmnd. 8427) [online]. London: HMSO. Available at: https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/lords/1982/feb/04/brixton-disorders-the-scarman-report

Sentencing Council, 2020a. Disorderly behaviour/racially or religiously aggravated disorderly behaviour [online]. Available at: https://www.sentencingcouncil.org.uk/offences/magistrates-court/item/disorderly-behaviour-racially-or-religiously-aggravated-disorderly-behaviour/

Sentencing Council, 2020b. Disorderly behaviour with intent to cause harassment, alarm or distress/Racially or religiously aggravated disorderly behaviour with intent to cause harassment, alarm or distress [online]. Available at: https://www.sentencingcouncil.org.uk/offences/magistrates-court/item/disorderly-behaviour-with-intent-to-cause-harassment-alarm-or-distress-racially-or-religiously-aggravated-disorderly-behaviour-with-intent-to-cause-harassment-alarm-or-distress/

Sentencing Council, 2020c. Threatening behaviour – fear or provocation of violence/racially or religiously aggravated threatening behaviour – fear or provocation of violence [online]. Available at: https://www.sentencingcouncil.org.uk/offences/magistrates-court/item/threatening-behaviour-fear-or-provocation-of-violence-racially-or-religiously-aggravated-threatening-behaviour-fear-or-provocation-of-violence/

Sherr, A., 1989. Freedom of protest, public order & the law. Oxford/New York: Basil Blackwell.

Smith, A.T.H., 1987. The offences against public order. Including the Public Order Act 1986. London: Sweet & Maxwell/Police Review.

Strickland, P., and Douse, D., 2013. “Insulting words or behaviour”: Section 5 of the Public Order Act 1986 (Commons Research Briefing SN05760) [online]. London: House of Commons. Available at: https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/SN05760/SN05760.pdf

Thornton, P., 2010. The law of public order and protest. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.

Thurlow, R., 1996. Blaming the Blackshirts: the authorities and the anti-Jewish disturbances in the 1930s. In: P. Panayi, ed., Racial violence in Britain in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. London/New York: Leicester University Press, 112–130.

Thurlow, R., 1998. Fascism in Britain: a history, 1918–1998. London/New York: I.B. Tauris.

White, C., 1998. Law, policing and the criminal justice system. In: P. Hainsworth, ed., Divided society. Ethnic minorities and racism in Northern Ireland. London/Sterling: Pluto Press, 70–88.

Wiedlitzka, S., et al., 2023. Hate in word and deed: the temporal association between online and offline islamophobia, Journal of Quantitative Criminology [online], 39, 75–96. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-021-09530-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-021-09530-9

Williams, D., 1963. Insulting words and public order. The Modern Law Review, 26(4), 425–429.

Williams, M.L., and Burnap, P., 2016. Cyberhate on social media in the aftermath of Woolwich: a case study in computational criminology and big data. British Journal of Criminology [online], 56(2), 211–238. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azv059 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azv059

Witte, R., 1996. Racist violence and the state: A comparative analysis of Britain, France and the Netherlands. Abingdon/New York: Routledge.

Wolffe, W.J., 1987. Values in conflict: incitement to racial hatred and the Public Order Act 1986. Public Law, 85–95.