Online hate and the contentious case of stirring up hatred offences

Egileak

##plugins.pubIds.doi.readerDisplayName##:

https://doi.org/10.35295/osls.iisl.1744

Gako-hitzak:

stirring up hatred, hate crimes, hate speech, incitement, cybercrime

Laburpena

In 2016, as requested, the UK Government submitted written evidence to the Home Affairs Committee's inquiry into hate crime and its consequences. Among all the offences listed as part of what was called a robust legal framework to combat online hate, there was one set of offences surprisingly missing. The stirring up hatred offences (ss. 18-23 and 29B-29G of the Public Order Act 1986), at least comparable to those envisaged in Article 510 of the Spanish Criminal Code (that is, punishable hate speech), were laid incomprehensibly out of play. Hence, this research study first aims to determine whether this decision is understandable. Then, we will focus on some legal hotspots concerning those offences to visualise better how they operate in practice. Finally, by way of conclusion, a comparative endeavour will be made with the Spanish legal system, bringing to the forefront the conflict points already dealt with.

 

##plugins.generic.usageStats.downloads##

##plugins.generic.usageStats.noStats##

        Metrics

Views 1399
Downloads:
XML_13(5)_Gordon_Benito_OSLS (English) 178
13(5)_Gordon_Benito_OSLS (English) 193


##submission.authorBiography##

##submission.authorWithAffiliation##

Iñigo Gordon Benito is a Lecturer in Criminal law and a member of the UNESCO Chair for Human Rights and Public Authorities of the University of the Basque Country (http://katedraddhh.eus/en/equipo/equipo.php). His research activity is focused on hate crimes, hate speech and online identity theft. In November 2021, he defended his doctoral thesis entitled «Hate crimes and cyberhate in the Spanish Criminal Code. Special attention devoted to the generic aggravating circumstance of Article 22.4 and the aggravated subtype of Article 510.3». He is currently part of the Hate Crime Research Group working team, funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation, which runs from 1 September 2021 to 1 September 2025 (Title of the Project: Hate crimes in Spain: pending challenges; Reference: I+D+I PID2020-115320GB-100). In 2018 he carried out a research stay at Oxford Brookes University (UK). In April 2021, he carried out a new research stay at the Max Planck Institute for the Study of Crime, Security and Law (Germany). He has been certified as an Assistant Lecturer/Professor in May 2022. He is a hired postdoctoral researcher as of 26 June 2022.

Erreferentziak

Bakalis, C., 2021. Gender as a protected characteristic. A legal perspective. In: I. Zempi and J. Smith, eds., Misogyny as hate crime, London/New York: Routledge, 65–78. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003023722-3

Barker, K., and Jurasz, O., 2019. Online misogyny as a hate crime. A challenge for legal regulation? Abingdon/New York: Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429956805

BBC News, 2017. Sadiq Khan launches London online hate crime hub. BBC [online], 24 April. Available at: https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-london-39692811

Beever, S., 2021. Woman arrested over ‘racially aggravated’ comments online over death of Afghan refugee in Sheffield as MPs demand ‘urgent answers’ over Home Office accommodation. Yorkshire Post [online], 22 August. Available at: https://www.yorkshirepost.co.uk/news/crime/woman-arrested-over-vile-online-comments-about-afghan-boy-who-died-in-sheffield-3355342

Bindman, G., 1977. Restraint on incitement. The new British law. Patterns of Prejudice, 11(2), 5–9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0031322X.1977.9969363

Bindman, G., 1997. Outlawing Holocaust denial. New Law Journal, Vol. 147, 466–468.

Bock, S., and Stark, F., 2020. Preparatory offences. In: K. Ambos et al., eds., Core concepts in Criminal law and Criminal justice. Volume I. Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press, 54–93. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108649742.003

Cancio Meliá, M., 2021. Libertad de expresión: crimen y palabra. El País [online], 15 February. Available at: https://elpais.com/opinion/2021-02-14/crimen-y-palabra.html

Card, R., 2000. Public order law. Bristol: Jordans.

Card, R., and Ward, R., 1998. The Crime and Disorder Act 1998. A practitioner’s guide. Bristol: Jordans.

Crown Prosecution Service (CPS), 2019. Hate crime report 2018–19 [online]. Available at: https://www.cps.gov.uk/sites/default/files/documents/publications/CPS-Hate-Crime-Annual-Report-2018-2019.PDF

Crown Prosecution Service (CPS), 2023. Homophobic, biphobic and transphobic hate crime – prosecution guidance (Updated: 3 March 2022; minor revision February 2023) [online]. Available at: https://www.cps.gov.uk/legal-guidance/homophobic-biphobic-and-transphobic-hate-crime-prosecution-guidance

Dickey, A., 1968. English law and race defamation. New York Law Forum, 14(1), 9–32. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/030639686800900303

Duff, R.A., 1996. Criminal attempts. Oxford/New York: Clarendon Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198262688.001.0001

Duff, R.A., 2007. Answering for crime. Responsibility and liability in the Criminal law. Oxford/Portland: Hart. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199542895.003.0006

Duff, R.A., and Marshall, S.E., 2018. Criminalizing hate? In: T. Brudholm and B.S. Johansen, eds., Hate, politics, law. Critical perspectives on combating hate. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 115–149. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190465544.003.0007

Free Speech Union, 2020. Written submission to the Justice Committee (Ref. No. J/S5/20/HC/39) [online]. Available at: https://archive2021.parliament.scot/S5_JusticeCommittee/Inquiries/JS520HC39_The_Free_Speech_Union_.pdf

Home Office, 2016. Action against hate. The UK Government´s plan for tackling hate crime [online]. July. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/927673/2016_Hate_Crime_Action_Plan.pdf

Home Office, 2017. Home Secretary announces new national online hate crime hub [online]. Press release. 8 October. London: Gov.uk. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/news/home-secretary-announces-new-national-online-hate-crime-hub

Home Office, 2018. Hate crime. England and Wales, 2017/18. Statistical Bulletin 20/18 [online]. 16 October. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/748598/hate-crime-1718-hosb2018.pdf

Home Office, 2019. Hate crime. England and Wales, 2018/19. Statistical Bulletin 24/19 [online]. 15 October. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/839172/hate-crime-1819-hosb2419.pdf

Home Office, 2020. Online Harms White Paper: consultation outcome (updated 15 December 2020) [online]. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/online-harms-white-paper/online-harms-white-paper

Hope Not Hate, et al., 2021. Free speech for all. Why legal but harmful content should continue to be included in the Online Safety Bill [online]. Available at: https://hopenothate.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/Free-Speech-For-All-2021-08-FINAL.pdf

House of Commons, 2016. Home Affairs Committee: Hate crime and its violent consequences inquiry. Written evidence submitted by the Government (Ref. HCR0052) [online]. Available at: http://data.parliament.uk/writtenevidence/committeeevidence.svc/evidencedocument/home-affairs-committee/hate-crime-and-its-violent-consequences/written/36658.pdf

Kamenova, I., and Perliger, A., 2023. Online hate crimes. In: D. Hummer and J.M. Byrne, eds., Handbook on crime and technology, Cheltenham/Northampton: Edward Elgar, 278–302. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4337/9781800886643.00026

Laurenzo Copello, P., 2013. ¿Vulnerables o vulnerados? Las paradojas de la tutela penal de los inmigrantes. In: M. De Hoyos Sancho, dir., Garantías y derechos de las víctimas especialmente vulnerables en el marco jurídico de la Unión Europea. Valencia: Tirant lo Blanch, 75–88.

Law Commission, 1983. Offences relating to public order (Law Com. No. 123) [online]. Available at: https://s3-eu-west-2.amazonaws.com/lawcom-prod-storage-11jsxou24uy7q/uploads/2016/07/LC.-123-CRIMINAL-LAW-OFFENCES-RELATING-TO-PUBLIC-ORDER.pdf

Law Commission, 2014. Hate crime: should the current offences be extended? (Law Com. No. 348) [online]. Available at: https://www.lawcom.gov.uk/app/uploads/2015/03/lc348_hate_crime.pdf

Law Commission, 2018. Abusive and offensive online communications: a scoping report (Law Com. No. 381) [online]. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/912203/6_5039_LC_Online_Comms_Report_FINAL_291018_WEB.pdf

Law Commission, 2020. Hate crime laws. A consultation paper (Consultation Paper No. 250) [online]. Available at: https://s3-eu-west-2.amazonaws.com/lawcom-prod-storage-11jsxou24uy7q/uploads/2020/10/Hate-crime-final-report.pdf

Law, J., 2022. A dictionary of law. 10th ed. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.

Leopold, P.M., 1977. Incitement to hatred. The history of a controversial criminal offence. Public Law, 389–405.

Maldita.es, 2023. Por qué se condena a la tuitera que difundió un bulo sobre menores extranjeros no acompañados. Maldita.es [online], 11 April. Available at: https://maldita.es/malditateexplica/20230411/condena-acusacion-persona-bulo-menores-extranjeros/

Ministry of Inclusion, Social Security and Migration, 2021. OBERAXE alerta del fuerte aumento del discurso de odio online hacia menores inmigrantes [online]. 13 September. Available at: https://inclusion.seg-social.es/en/web/guest/w/oberaxe-alerta-del-fuerte-aumento-del-discurso-de-odio-online-hacia-menores-inmigrantes

Neller, J., 2023. Stirring up hatred. Myth, identity and order in the regulation of hate speech. London: Palgrave Macmillan. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-19242-5

O’Neill, A., 2017. Hate crime. England and Wales, 2016/17. Statistical Bulletin 17/17 [online]. London: Home Office. 17 October. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/652136/hate-crime-1617-hosb1717.pdf

Phillipson, G., 2020. Searching for a Chimera? Seeking common law rights of freedom of assembly and association. In: M. Elliot and K. Hughes, eds., Common law constitutional rights. Oxford/Portland: Hart, 141–166. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5040/9781509906895.ch-007

Quintero Olivares, G., 1996. Libertad de expresión y honor en el Código penal de 1995. In: T. Vives Antón and J.L. Manzanares Samaniego, dirs., Estudios sobre el Código penal de 1995 (Parte Especial). Madrid: Consejo General del Poder Judicial, 149–182.

Robertson, G., 1993. Freedom, the individual and the law. 7th ed. London/New York: Penguin Books.

Robinson, M., 2017. Racist bigot’ who called Hitler ‘God’ and had a swastika tattoo on his chest is jailed for five years for having a ‘bomb recipe’ on his laptop and posting hundreds of extremist messages online. Daily Mail [online], 23 February. Available at: https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-4253174/Racist-bigot-swastika-tattoo-chest-jailed.html

Solé Altimira, O., 2021. El fiscal pide dos años de cárcel a la primera tuitera acusada de difundir ‘fake news’ xenófobas. elDiario.es [online], 14 September. Available at: https://www.eldiario.es/catalunya/fiscal-pide-anos-carcel-primera-tuitera-acusada-difundir-fake-news-xenofobas_1_8299904.html

Sumner, L.W., 2011. Criminalizing expression: hate speech and obscenity. In: J. Deigh and D. Dolinko, eds., The Oxford handbook of philosophy of Criminal law, Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 17–36. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195314854.003.0002

Thurlow, R., 1998. Fascism in Britain. A history: 1918–1998. London: I.B. Tauris.

Varona Gómez, D., 2021. La cara oculta de la justicia penal: la conformidad del acusado. A propósito de la STS 15-4-2021. InDret. Revista para el Análisis del Derecho, no. 3, vii–ix.

Vaughan, H., 2019. Less than 1% of cases reported to online hate crime unit resulted in charges. Independent [online], 30 December. Available at: https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/online-hate-crime-report-charge-sadiq-khan-a9263316.html

Williams, D., 1967. Keeping the peace. The police and public order. London: Hutchinson.

Wilson, W., 2020. Criminal law. 7th ed. Harlow: Pearson.

Wolffe, W.J., 1987. Values in conflict: incitement to racial hatred and the Public Order Act 1986. Public Law, 85–95.

Argitaratuta

##submission.updatedOn##

##submission.howToCite##