A "next generation" of climate change litigation?
An Australian perspective
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.35295/osls.iisl/0000-0000-0000-1060Keywords:
Strategic litigation, climate change, impact litigation, legal avenues, access to justice, accountabilityAbstract
Since conclusion of the Paris Agreement and the high-profile Urgenda case, potential new avenues for strategic climate litigation have received considerable attention in many countries, including Australia. Australia already has a substantial climate jurisprudence, primarily involving administrative challenges under environmental laws. This paper aims to examine the prospects for a “next generation” of cases focused on holding governments and corporations to account for the climate change implications of their actions. We draw on analysis of existing legal precedent and emerging cases to explore four key aspects: drivers for next generation lawsuits, potential legal avenues, and likely enablers and barriers. The paper uses the Australian experience as a case study but draws also on litigation trends globally. We find that the most fruitful strategy for future climate change litigation is likely to be one that advances lower risk cases building from the base of existing litigation, while simultaneously attempting novel approaches.
Downloads
Metrics
Downloads:
PDF 1256
References
Abbs, R., Cashman, P., and Stephens, T., 2012. Australia. In: R. Lord et al., eds., Climate Change Liability: Transnational Law and Practice. Cambridge University Press.
AFP, 2018. Dutch Govt Appeals Landmark Greenhouse Gases Ruling. Yahoo News [online], 29 May. Available from: https://www.yahoo.com/news/dutch-govt-appeals-landmark-greenhouse-gases-ruling-151122641.html [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Anton, D., 2015. A Dutch blueprint for climate litigation. Sydney Morning Herald [online], 2 July. Available from: http://www.smh.com.au/comment/a-dutch-blueprint-for-climate-litigation-20150702-gi3d5d.html [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Australasian Centre for Corporate Responsibility, 2014. Financed emissions, ‘Unburnable Carbon’ Risk and the Major Australian Banks [online]. Report. ACCR, October. Available from: https://accr.org.au/wp-content/uploads/BankReportWeb.pdf [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Barber, C., 2012. Tackling the Evaluation Challenge in Human Rights: Assessing the Impact of Strategic Litigation Organisations. International Journal of Human Rights [online], 16(3), 411-435. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/13642987.2011.566723 [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Barker, S., and Girgis, M., 2016, A new COP on the beat – heightened expectations for corporate sustainability governance and disclosure [online]. Client alert. Melbourne: Minter Ellison, 1 June. Available from: https://tinyurl.com/yb6lo83z [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Barker, S., et al., 2016. Climate change and the fiduciary duties of pension fund trustees – lessons from the Australian law. Journal of Sustainable Finance and Investment [online], 6(3), 211-244. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/20430795.2016.1204687 [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Barteau, M., 2016. What President Trump means for the future of energy and climate. The Conversation [online], 10 November. Available from: https://theconversation.com/what-president-trump-means-for-the-future-of-energy-and-climate-68045 [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Bates, G., 2013. Ecologically Sustainable Development: The Template for Environmental Management. In: Environmental Law in Australia. 8th ed. Sydney: Butterworths, 219-258.
Baxter, T., 2017. Urgenda-style litigation has promise in Australia. Australian Environment Review [online], 32(3). Available from: http://lexisweb.lexisnexis.com.au/JournalOverview.aspx?id=201732AE00300054_00004 [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Bell-James, J., and Ryan, S., 2016. Climate Change Litigation in Queensland: A Case Study in Incrementalism. Environmental and Planning Law Journal, 33(6), p. 515.
Bergkamp, L., 2015. The Urgenda Judgement: a “victory” for the climate that is likely to backfire. Energypost [online], 9 September. Available from: http://energypost.eu/urgenda-judgment-victory-climate-likely-backfire/.[Accessed 10 October 2018].
Black, M., Karoly, D., and King, A., 2015. The Contribution of Anthropogenic Forcing to the Adelaide and Melbourne, Australia, Heat Waves of January 2014. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 96(12), p. S145.
Blumm, M.C., and Wood, M.C., 2017. No Ordinary Lawsuit: Climate Change, Due Process, and the Public Trust Doctrine. American University Law Review [online], 67(1). Available from: http://www.aulawreview.org/no-ordinary-lawsuit-climate-change-due-process-and-the-public-trust-doctrine/ [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Bonyhady, T., 1995. A Usable Past: The Public Trust Doctrine in Australia. Environmental and Planning Law Journal [online], 12(5), p. 329. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/289702782_A_usable_past_The_public_trust_in_Australia [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Bryant, K., and Rickards, J., 2016. The Legal Duties of Pension Fund Trustees in relation to Climate Change: Abridged Joint Opinion [online]. 25 November. Available from: https://shepwayvox.files.wordpress.com/2017/02/opinion.pdf [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Burke, P., and Jotzo, F., 2014. Wrong Way, Go Back [online]. 17 March. Canberra: ANU Crawford School of Public Policy. Available from: https://crawford.anu.edu.au/news-events/news/3718/wrong-way-go-back [Accessed 10 October 2018]. (Originally published on Inside Story, 17 March).
Cashman, P., and Abbs, R., 2010. Tort liability for loss or damage arising from human induced climate change: is this what justice requires and fairness demands. In: R. Lyster, ed., In the Wilds of Climate Law. Samford Valley: Australian Academic Press, p. 235.
Christoff, P., 2015. On These Numbers, Australia’s Emissions Auction Won’t Get the Job Done. The Conversation [online], 26 April. Available from: http://theconversation.com/on-these-numbers-australias-emissions-auction-wont-get-the-job-done-40761 [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Clark, C., and Crawford, E.P., 2012. Influencing Climate Change Policy: The Effect of Shareholder Pressure and Firm Environmental Performance. Business and Society [online], 51(1), 148-175. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0007650311427594
ClientEarth, 2016a. Investor Briefing: Complaints filed against SOCO International PLC and Cairn Energy PLC [online], 1 September. Available from: http://www.documents.clientearth.org/library/download-category/climate-governance/ [Accessed 10 October 2018].
ClientEarth, 2016b. Referral to the FRC Conduct Committee, Cairn Energy PLC [online]. Report. 18 August. Available from: https://www.documents.clientearth.org/wp-content/uploads/library/2016-08-18-cairn-regulatory-complaint-ce-en.pdf [Accessed 10 October 2018].
ClientEarth, 2016c. Referral to the FRC Conduct Committee, SOCO International PLC [online]. Report. 18 August. Available from: https://www.documents.clientearth.org/wp-content/uploads/library/2016-08-18-soco-regulatory-complaint-ce-en.pdf [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Climate Change Authority, 2015. Comparing Countries’ Emissions Targets: A Practical Guide [online]. Climate Change Authority of the Australian Government. Available from: http://climatechangeauthority.gov.au/sites/prod.climatechangeauthority.gov.au/files/CCA_Practical_Guide_Comparing_Countries%20FINAL.pdf [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Council of Australian Governments, 1992. National Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable Development [online]. December. Prepared by the Ecologically Sustainable Development Steering Committee. Canberra. Available from: http://www.environment.gov.au/about-us/esd/publications/national-esd-strategy-part1 [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Cox, R., 2015. A Climate Change Litigation Precedent: Urgenda Foundation v State of the Netherlands. CIGI papers [online], nº 79, November. Available from: https://www.cigionline.org/sites/default/files/cigi_paper_79.pdf [Accessed 10 October 2018].
de Graaf, K., and Hans, J., 2015. The Urgenda Decision: Netherlands Liable for Role in Causing Dangerous Global Climate Change. Journal of Environmental Law [online], 27(3), 517-527. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1093/jel/eqv030 [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Durrant, N., 2007. Tortious Liability for Greenhouse Gas Emissions? Climate Change, Causation and Public Policy Considerations. QUT Law and Justice Journal [online], 7(2), 403-424. Available from: https://eprints.qut.edu.au/14206/1/14206.pdf [Accessed 10 October 2018].
European Commission, 2014. Communication from the Commission: Guidelines on state aid for environmental protection and energy 2014-2020. Official Journal of the European Union [online], C 200/1, 28 June. Available from: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:52014XC0628(01)&from=EN [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Foerster, A., et al., 2017. Keeping Good Company in the Transition to a Low Carbon Economy? An Evaluation of Climate Risk Disclosure Practices in Australia. Company and Securities Law Journal [online], vol. 35, p. 154. Available from: https://law.unimelb.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/2464899/j04_v035_CSLJ_pt03_Foerster_etal_SSRN.pdf [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Foerster, A., and Peel, J., 2017a. Climate Change is a financial risk, according to a lawsuit against the CBA. The Conversation [online], 16 August. Available from: https://theconversation.com/climate-change-is-a-financial-risk-according-to-a-lawsuit-against-the-cba-82505 [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Foerster, A., and Peel, J., 2017b. U.S. Fossil Fuel Companies facing legal action for misleading disclosure of climate risks: Could it happen in Australia? Australian Environment Review [online], 32(3). Available from: https://law.unimelb.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/2464901/US-fossil-Fuel-Companies-facing-legal-action-for-misleading-disclosure-of-climate-risks.pdf [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Foerster, A., and Peel, J., 2018. Rio Tinto’s climate change resolution marks a significant shift in investor culture The Conversation [online], 3 May. Available from: https://theconversation.com/rio-tintos-climate-change-resolution-marks-a-significant-shift-in-investor-culture-95927 [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Gerrard, M., 2015. Legal Implications of the Paris Agreement for Fossil Fuels. Climate Law Blog [online], 19 December. Available from: http://blogs.law.columbia.edu/climatechange/2015/12/19/legal-implications-of-the-paris-agreement-for-fossil-fuels/ [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Gillis, J., and Krauss, C., 2015. Exxon Mobil investigated for possible climate change lies by New York Attorney General. New York Times [online], 5 November. Available from: http://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/06/science/exxon-mobil-under-investigation-in-new-york-over-climate-statements.html [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Godden, L., and Peel, J., 2010. Environmental Law: Science, Policy and Regulatory Dimensions. Melbourne: Oxford University Press.
Greenpeace Philippines, 2015. Petition Requesting for Investigation of the Responsibility of the Carbon Majors for Human Rights Violations or Threats of Violations Resulting from the Impacts of Climate Change [online]. Press release. Quezon City: Greenpeace Philippines, 28 July. Available from: http://www.greenpeace.org/seasia/ph/press/releases/Worlds-largest-carbon-producers-ordered-to-respond-to-allegations-of-human-rights--abuses-from-climate-change/The-Climate-Change-and-Human-Rights-Petition [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Hannam, P., and Swan, J., 2014. Ross Garnaut Slams Abbott Government’s Direct Action Policy as like a ‘Martian Beauty Contest’. The Sydney Morning Herald [online], 7 March. Available from: http://www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/political-news/ross-garnaut-slams-abbott-governments-direct-action-policy-as-like-a-martian-beauty-contest-20140306-34atj.html [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Heede, R., 2014. Tracing anthropogenic carbon dioxide and methane emissions to fossil fuel and cement producers, 1854-2010. Climatic Change [online], 122(1-2), 229-241. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-013-0986-y [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Heron, S., et al., 2016. Warming Trends and Bleaching Stress of the World’s Coral Reefs 1985–2012. Scientific Reports [online], 6(1). Available from: http://www.nature.com/articles/srep38402 [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Higginson, S., 2016a. Merits Review in Planning in NSW [online]. Report. July. Sydney: EDO NSW. Available from: https://d3n8a8pro7vhmx.cloudfront.net/edonsw/pages/2998/attachments/original/1467777537/EDO_NSW_Report_-_Merits_Review_in_Planning_in_NSW.pdf?1467777537 [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Higginson, S., 2016b. The Value of Merits Review. Paper presented at Environmental Law: what can we do better? Annual Conference of the National Environmental Law Association, 18 November, Melbourne.
Hilson, C., 2010. Climate Change Litigation in the UK: An Explanatory Approach (or Bringing Grievance Back In). In: F. Fracchia and M. Occhiena, eds., Climate Change: La Risposta del Diritto. Naples: Editoriale Scientifica, p.421.
Hunter, D., 2009. The Implications of Climate Change Litigation: Litigation for International Environmental Law-Making. In: W. Burns and H. Osofsky, eds., Adjudicating Climate Change: State, National, and International Approaches. New York: Cambridge University Press, p. 357.
Hutchens, G., 2017. Commonwealth Bank shareholders drop suit over nondisclosure of climate risks. The Guardian [online], 21 September. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2017/sep/21/commonwealth-bank-shareholders-drop-suit-over-non-disclosure-of-climate-risks [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Hutley, N., and Hartford-Davis, S., 2016. Climate Change and Director’s Duties [online]. Centre for Policy Development, 30 October. Available from: http://cpd.org.au/2016/10/directorsduties/ [Accessed 10 October 2018].
IMF Bentham, n.d. Wivenhoe Dam [online]. Available from: http://www.imf.com.au/cases/detail/wivenhoe-dam [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2014a. Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Cambridge University Press.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2014b. Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [online]. Report. Core Writing Team: R.K. Pachauri and L.A. Meyer, eds. Geneva: IPCC. Available from: https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/syr/SYR_AR5_FINAL_full_wcover.pdf [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Irvine, J., 2016. Company directors to face penalties for ignoring climate change. The Age [online], 31 October. Available from: http://www.theage.com.au/business/company-directors-to-face-penalties-for-ignoring-climate-change-20161030-gsdwha.html [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Jimaa, H., 2016. Clientearth points finger at Soco and Cairn over alleged sustainability reporting failures. The Accountant [online], 23 August. Available from: http://www.theaccountant-online.com/news/clientearth-points-finger-at-soco-and-cairn-over-alleged-sustainability-reporting-failures-4986830/ [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Jotzo, F., 2015. Australia’s 2030 Climate Target Puts Us in the Race, But At the Back. The Conversation [online], 11 August. Available from: https://theconversation.com/australias-2030-climate-target-puts-us-in-the-race-but-at-the-back-45931 [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Kartha, S., 2016. Implications for Australia of a 1.5 °C Future [online]. Working Paper 2016-09, Stockholm Environment Institute. Available from: https://www.sei.org/publications/australia-1-5c/ [Accessed 10 October 2018].
King, A., and Karoly, D., 2016. How can we link some extreme weather to climate change. Pursuit [online], 18 March. Available from: https://pursuit.unimelb.edu.au/articles/how-we-can-link-some-extreme-weather-to-climate-change [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Knox, J., 2009. Climate Change and Human Rights Law. Virginia Journal of International Law, 50(1), p. 163.
Lake, K., 2015. What does the Dutch court ruling on climate targets mean for Australia? The Conversation [online], 26 June. https://theconversation.com/what-does-the-dutch-court-ruling-on-climate-targets-mean-for-australia-43841 [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Lin, J., 2015. The First Successful Climate Negligence Case: A comment on Urgenda Foundation v the State of the Netherlands (Ministry of Infrastructure and the Environment). Climate Law [online], 5(1), 65-81. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1163/18786561-00501003 [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Local Authority Pension Fund Forum, 2016. LAPFF co-signs letter to Financial Reporting Council on Climate Risk Reporting [online]. News article. LAPFF, 1 March. Available from: http://www.lapfforum.org/Archive/lapff-co-signs-letter-to-financial-reporting-council-on-climate-risk-reporting [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Markell, D., and Ruhl, J.B., 2010. An Empirical Survey of Climate Change Litigation in the United States. Environmental Law Reporter [online], 40(7), p. 10644. Available from: http://ir.law.fsu.edu/articles/67 [Accessed 10 October 2018].
McGrath, C., 2008. Flying foxes, dams and whales: Using federal environmental laws in the public interest. Environmental and Planning Law Journal [online], nº 25, p. 324. Available from: http://legacy.envlaw.com.au/PIEL.pdf [Accessed 10 October 2018].
McInerney-Lankford, S., 2009. Climate Change and Human Rights: An Introduction to Legal Issues’ Harvard Environmental Law Review [online], vol. 33, p. 431. Available from: https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/helr33&div=17&id=&page= [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Meinshausen, M., et al., 2009. Greenhouse-gas emission targets for limiting global warming to 2 °C. Nature [online], vol. 458, p. 1158. Available from: http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/nature08017 [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Mengel, M., et al., 2016. Future Sea Level Rise Constrained by Observations and Long-Term Commitment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences [online], 113(10), p. 2597. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1500515113 [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Nachmany, M., et al., 2017. Global Trends in Climate Change Legislation and Litigation. 2017 Update [online]. May. Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment. Available from: http://archive.ipu.org/pdf/publications/global.pdf [Accessed 10 October 2018].
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine, 2016. Attribution of Extreme Weather Events in the Context of Climate Change. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Available from: https://doi.org/10.17226/21852 [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Nelson F., 2015a. Dutch climate change case no roadmap for Aus. Lawyers Weekly [online], 16 July. Available from: http://www.lawyersweekly.com.au/news/16831-can-we-replicate-the-dutch-climate-change-victory [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Nelson, F., 2015b. Dutch climate champion brings ‘case for hope’ to Australia. Lawyers Weekly [online], 24 July. Available from: http://www.lawyersweekly.com.au/news/16874-dutch-climate-champion-brings-a-case-for-hope-to-australia [Accessed 10 October 2018].
New York State Office of the Attorney General, 2015. AG Schneiderman secures unprecedented agreement with Peabody Energy to end misleading statements and disclosure risks associated with climate change [online]. Press release, 9 November. Available from: http://www.ag.ny.gov/press-release/ag-schneiderman-secures-unprecedented-agreement-peabody-energy-end-misleading [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Olsen, B., and Viswanatha, A., 2016. SEC probes Exxon over accounting for climate change. The Wall Street Journal [online], 20 September. Available from: http://www.wsj.com/articles/sec-investigating-exxon-on-valuing-of-assets-accounting-practices-1474393593 [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Osofsky, H., 2007. The Inuit Petition as a Bridge? Beyond Dialectics of Climate Change and Indigenous Peoples’ Rights. American Indian Law Review [online], vol. 31, p. 675. Available from: https://ssrn.com/abstract=979106 [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Peel, J., 2011. Issues in Climate Change Litigation’ Carbon and Climate Law Review [online], 5(1), p. 15. Available from: http://www.jstor.org/stable/24324007 [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Peel, J., 2016. Environmental impact assessments and climate change. In: D. Farber and M. Peeters, eds., Climate Change Law. Elgar Encyclopedia of Environmental Law series, vol. I. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, p. 348.
Peel, J., and Osofsky, H., 2015. Climate Change Litigation: Regulatory Pathways to Cleaner Energy. Cambridge University Press.
Peel, J., and Osofsky, H., 2017. A Rights’ Turn in Climate Change Litigation? Transnational Environmental Law [online], 7(1), 1-31. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1017/S2047102517000292 [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Penn, I., 2016. California to investigate whether Exxon Mobil lied about climate change risks. Los Angeles Times [online], 12 October. Available from: http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-exxon-global-warming-20160120-story.html [Accessed 10 October 2018].
President Trump, 2017. Paris Climate Agreement Announcement [Statement, transcript]. The White House [online], 1 June. Available from: https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefings-statements/statement-president-trump-paris-climate-accord/ [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Preston, B., 2010. The Role of Courts in Relation to Adaptation to Climate Change. In: T. Bonyhady, A. Macintosh and J. McDonald, eds., Adaptation to Climate Change: Law and Policy. Sydney, NSW: Federation Press, p. 157.
Preston, B., 2011a. Climate Change Litigation (Part 1). Carbon and Climate Law Review [online], 5(1), p. 3. Available from: https://doi.org/10.21552/CCLR/2011/1/156 [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Preston, B., 2011b. The Influence of Climate Change Litigation on Governments and the Private Sector. Climate Law [online], vol. 2, p. 485. Available from: http://www.lec.justice.nsw.gov.au/Documents/preston_influence%20of%20climate%20change%20litigation.pdf [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Price, J., 2018. Climate change [online]. Keynote address by John Price, Commissioner, Australian Securities and Investments Commission, to the Centre for Policy Development: Financing a Sustainable Economy. Sydney, 18 June. Available from: https://asic.gov.au/about-asic/media-centre/speeches/climate-change/ [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Rackemann, M.E., 2011. The Management of Experts [online]. Paper presented at the Judicial Conference of Australian Colloquium, Innovation in Court Proceedings. Alice Springs, 14-16 October. Available from: http://classic.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/QldJSchol/2011/45.pdf [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Rayfuse, R., and Scott, S., eds., 2012. International Law in the Era of Climate Change. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
RE 100, 2015. COP21: A “Turning Point” Thanks to Business Engagement and Demand. RE 100 News [online], 8 December. Available from: http://there100.org/news/14189893/ [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Ruddock, K., 2013. Has Judicial Review Killed ESD? Australian Environment Review, 28 (6), p. 625.
Sabin Center for Climate Change Law, 2017. U.S. Climate Change Litigation [online]. Chart. Available from: http://climatecasechart.com/us-climate-change-litigation/ [Accessed 10 October 2018].
ShareAction and ClientEarth, 2016. The hot debate on climate risk and pension investments: Does practice stack up against the law? [online]. Investor report. September. Available from: https://shareaction.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/ClimateInvestmentDuties-InvestorReport.pdf [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Shareholders Foundation, 2016. Exxon Mobil Corporation (NYSE:XOM) Investor Securities Class Action Lawsuit 11/08/2016 [online]. Press release, 17 November. Available from: https://globenewswire.com/news-release/2016/11/17/891034/0/en/Lawsuit-for-Investors-in-Exxon-Mobil-Corporation-NYSE-XOM-shares-announced-by-Shareholders-Foundation.html [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Simpson, J., 2003. The Public Trust Doctrine and its Relevance in Australia. Paper presented at the EDO NSW Coastal Solutions Forum 2003 - Can we better use private rights to protect the public commons? Sydney, 5 November.
Slater, D., 2007. Resolved: Public Corporations Shall Take Us Seriously. New York Times [online], 12 August. Available from: http://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/12/magazine/12exxon-t.html [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Stein, P.L., 2000. Are Decision-Makers too Cautious with the Precautionary Principle? Environmental and Law Planning Journal [online], 17(1), 3-23. Available from: https://tinyurl.com/yd8vhdfq [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Summerhayes, G., 2017. Australia’s New Horizon, Climate Change Challenges and Prudential Risk [online]. Speech to the Insurance Council of Australia’s Annual Forum. Sydney, 17 February. Available from: http://ccrb.agresearch.co.nz/CloudLibrary/ICA%20Speech%20Geoff%20Summerhayes%2017%20February%202017.pdf [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Taskforce on Climate-related Financial Disclosures, 2016. Phase One Report of the Task Force on Climate-Related Financial Disclosures [online]. Available from: https://www.fsb-tcfd.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Phase_I_Report_v15.pdf [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Taskforce on Climate-related Financial Disclosures, 2017. Final Report: Recommendations of the Taskforce on Climate-Related Financial Disclosures [online]. June. Available from: https://www.fsb-tcfd.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/FINAL-TCFD-Report-062817.pdf [Accessed 10 October 2018].
The New Lawyer, 2012. Queensland flood class action could be the biggest ever. Lawyers Weekly [online], 23 March. Available from: http://www.lawyersweekly.com.au/deals/12695-qld-flood-class-action-could-be-biggest-ever [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Thom, B., 2012. Climate Change, Coastal Hazards and the Public Trust Doctrine. Macquarie Journal of International and Comparative Environmental Law [online] 8(2), p. 21. Available from: http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/MqJICEL/2012/7.pdf [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Thorpe, D., 2015. Australia’s Climate Pledge Leaves Other Countries to Pick up the Slack. The Drum [online], 18 August. Available from: http://www.thefifthestate.com.au/habitat/climate-change-news/australias-climate-pledge-leaves-other-countries-to-pick-up-the-slack/76661 [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Tickell, O., 2014. UK’s unlawful £35 billion support to fossil fuels in ECJ challenge. Ecologist [online], 4 December. Available from: http://www.theecologist.org/News/news_round_up/2662841/uks_unlawful_35_billion_support_to_fossil_fuels_in_ecj_challenge.html [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Tobin, T. (with A. Fraatz), 2012. Bushfire class actions. Precedent [online], nº 104, p. 4. Available from: http://classic.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/PrecedentAULA/2012/14.pdf [Accessed 10 October 2018].
United Nations Environment Programme, 2017. The Status of Climate Change Litigation: A Global Review [online]. May. Available from: https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/20767/climate-change-litigation.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y [Accessed 10 October 2018].
van Hooidonk, R., et al., 2016. Local-Scale Projections of Coral Reef Futures and Implications of the Paris Agreement. Scientific Reports [online], 6(1). Available from: https://doi.org/10.1038/srep39666 [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Verheyen, R., 2005. Climate Change Damage and International Law: Prevention Duties and State Responsibility. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff.
Wattles, J., 2016. SEC is latest regulator to investigate Exxon Mobil’s accounting practices. CNN Money [online], 20 September. Available from: http://money.cnn.com/2016/09/20/news/companies/exxon-mobil-sec-investigation/index.html [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Wilensky, M., 2015. Climate Change in the Courts: An Assessment of Non-U.S. Climate Litigation [online]. February. Sabin Center for Climate Change Law, Columbia Law School. Available from: https://web.law.columbia.edu/sites/default/files/microsites/climate-change/white_paper_-_climate_change_in_the_courts_-_assessment_of_non_u.s._climate_litigation.pdf [Accessed 10 October 2018].
Wood, M.C., 2012. Atmospheric Trust Litigation Across the World. In: K. Coghill, C. Sampford and T. Smith, eds., Fiduciary Duty and the Atmospheric Trust. Farnham: Ashgate, 99.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2019 Jacqueline Peel, Hari Osofsky, Anita Foerster
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
OSLS strictly respects intellectual property rights and it is our policy that the author retains copyright, and articles are made available under a Creative Commons licence. The Creative Commons Non-Commercial Attribution No-Derivatives licence is our default licence, further details available at https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0 If this is not acceptable to you, please contact us.
The non-exclusive permission you grant to us includes the rights to disseminate the bibliographic details of the article, including the abstract supplied by you, and to authorise others, including bibliographic databases, indexing and contents alerting services, to copy and communicate these details.
For information on how to share and store your own article at each stage of production from submission to final publication, please read our Self-Archiving and Sharing policy.
The Copyright Notice showing the author and co-authors, and the Creative Commons license will be displayed on the article, and you must agree to this as part of the submission process. Please ensure that all co-authors are properly attributed and that they understand and accept these terms.
