La metamorfosis "inteligente" de las fronteras y su alcance ambivalente en el control migratorio europeo: Un punto de no retorno

Encarnación La Spina

doi:10.35295/osls.iisl.2418

Authors

Encarnación La Spina University of Deusto

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.35295/osls.iisl.2418

Keywords:

smart borders, migrants, migratory control, European Union, stereotyped categories

Abstract

The process of digital transformation of Europe's external borders and especially the inference capacity of AI systems, has changed the way migration flows into the European Union are anticipated, controlled and curbed. Not only through the widespread use of predictive tools, remote biometric identification and categorisation systems, but also through the increasing experimental implementation of different algorithmic software. While the myriad of technological applications and advanced AI systems respond to the ‘objective’ need or justification for an efficient and sustainable response to border management of immigration and asylum. This supposedly innocuous ‘intelligent’ transformation of borders (smart borders) contributes, from a securitarian point of view, activating the unlimited reproduction of stereotypes about (un)desired migrations.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Metrics

Global Statistics

145 Views	117 Downloads
262 Total

References

Achiume, E. T., 2022. Racial Borders. Georgetown Law Journal, 110(3), 444-508.

Agamben, G., 2006. Mezzi senza fine. Note sulla politica. Turín: Bollati e Boringhieri.

Alonso Tomé, S., 2025. La aplicación de la inteligencia artificial en los controles de las fronteras exteriores de la Unión Europea: Regulación y desafíos. Revista de Estudios Europeos [en línea], 85, 588-619. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.24197/ree.85.2025.588-619 DOI: https://doi.org/10.24197/ree.85.2025.588-619

Amelung, N., y Machado, H., 2019. “Bio-Bordering’ Processes in the EU: De-Bordering and Re Bordering Along Transnational Systems of Biometric Database Technologies. International Journal of Migration and Border Studies [en línea], 5(4), 392-408. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1504/IJMBS.2019.105813 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1504/IJMBS.2019.105813

Amoore, L., 2006. Biometric borders: Governing mobilities in the war on terror. Political Geography [en línea], 25 (3), 336-351. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2006.02.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2006.02.001

Arce Jiménez, C., 2023. Las nuevas tecnologías en las políticas migratorias y de control de fronteras españolas y europeas. un reto para la vigencia de los derechos fundamentales. Estudios de Deusto. Revista de Derecho público [en línea], 71(2), 15-49. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.18543/ed.2926 DOI: https://doi.org/10.18543/ed.2926

Avello Martínez, M., 2023. EU Borders and Potential Conflicts between New Technologies and Human Rights. Peace & Security – Paix et Sécurité Internationales [en línea], 11, 1-33. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.25267/Paix_secur_int.2023.i11.1204 DOI: https://doi.org/10.25267/Paix_secur_int.2023.i11.1204

Balibar, É., 2005. Fronteras del mundo, fronteras de la política. Alteridades [en línea], 15(30), 87-96. Disponible en: https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/747/74703008.pdf

Beduschi, A., y McAuliffe, M., 2022. Artificial Intelligence, Migration and Mobility: Implications for Policy and Practice [en línea]. Geneva: World Migration Report (International Organization for Migration). Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1002/wom3.32 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/wom3.32

Bellanova, R., Helena Carrapico, H., y Duez, D., 2022. Digital/sovereignty and European security integration: an introduction. European Security [en línea], 31(3), 337-355. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1080/09662839.2022.2101887 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09662839.2022.2101887

Bellanova, R., y Glouftsios, G., 2022. Formatting European security integration through database interoperability. European Security [en línea], 31(3), 454-474. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1080/09662839.2022.2101886 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09662839.2022.2101886

Bigo, D. 2011. Security: A Field Left Fallow’, En M. Dillon, y Neal, W. Foucault on Politics, Security and War, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 93-114. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230229846_5

Bigo, D., 2020. Interoperability: A Political Technology for the Datafication of the Field of EU Internal Security?. En: D. Bigo et al., eds., The Routledge Handbook of Critical European Studies [en línea]. Londres: Routledge, 400-417. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429491306-26 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429491306-26

Bigo, D., 2022. The Digitalisation of Border Controls and their Corporate Actors. En: M. Bosworth y L. Zedner, eds., Privatising Border Control. Law at the Limits of the Sovereign State [en línea]. Oxford University Press, 1-25. Disponible en: https://sciencespo.hal.science/hal-03967365v1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192857163.003.0013

Bigo, D., et al., 2012. Evaluating Current and Forthcoming Proposals on JHA Databases and a Smart Borders System at EU External Borders. Bruselas: Parlamento Europeo.

Blasi Casagran, C., 2021. Fundamental rights implications of interconnecting migration and policing databases in the EU. Human rights law review [en línea], 21(2), 433-457. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1093/hrlr/ngaa057 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/hrlr/ngaa057

Broeders, D., 2007. The New Digital Borders of Europe: EU Databases and the Surveillance of Irregular Migrants. International Sociology [en línea], 22(1), 71-92. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1177/0268580907070126 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0268580907070126

Broeders, D., 2011. A European ‘Border’ Surveillance System under Construction. En: H. Dijstelbloem y A. Meijer, eds., Migration and the New Technological Borders of Europe [en línea]. Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan, 40–67. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230299382_3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230299382_3

Brunet‐Jailly, E., 2006. Security and border security policies: Perimeter or smart border? A comparison of the European union and Canadian‐ American border security regimes. Journal of Borderlands Studies [en línea], 21(1), 3-21. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1080/08865655.2006.9695649 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/08865655.2006.9695649

Burgess, J.P., y Kloza, D., eds., 2021. Border control and new technologies. Addressing integrated Impact Assessment. Bruselas: Academic and Scientific Publishers. DOI: https://doi.org/10.46944/9789461171375

Campesi, G., 2012. Migraciones, seguridad y confines en la teoría social contemporánea. Revista Crítica Penal y Poder, 3, 1-20.

Campesi, G., 2021. Geografia giuridica dei confini. Sociologia del Diritto [en línea], 48(3), 15-42. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.3280/SD2021-003002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3280/SD2021-003002

Chouliaraki, L., y Georgiou, M., 2019. The digital border: Mobility beyond territorial and symbolic divides. European Journal of Communication [en línea], 34(6), 594-605. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1177/0267323119886147 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0267323119886147

Comisión Europea (CE), 2008. Commission Communication of 13 February 2008 on 'Preparing the next steps in border management in the European Union'. Bruselas: CE.

Comisión Europea (CE), 2011. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council on Smart borders: options and the way forward. Bruselas: EC.

Comisión Europea (CE), 2016. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council on Stronger and Smarter Information Systems for Borders and Security. Bruselas: EC.

Comisión Europea (CE), 2020. The Use of Artificial Intelligence in Border Control, Migration and Security. Bruselas: EC.

Comisión Europea (CE), 2021. Opportunities and Challenges for the Use of Artificial Intelligence in Border Control, Migration and Security. Bruselas: EC.

Comisión Europea (CE), 2022. Towards an integrated management of the external borders of the Member States of the European Union. Bruselas: EC.

Cook, R.J. y Cusack, S., 2010. Gender Stereotyping: Transnational Legal Perspectives [en línea]. Filadelfia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.9783/9780812205923 DOI: https://doi.org/10.9783/9780812205923

Côté-Boucher, K., 2008. The Diffuse Border: Intelligence-Sharing, Control and Confinement along Canada’s Smart Border. Surveillance & Society [en línea], 5(2), 142-165. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.24908/ss.v5i2.3432 DOI: https://doi.org/10.24908/ss.v5i2.3432

Cruz Ángeles, J., 2020. Procesamiento informático de datos y protección de derechos fundamentales en las fronteras exteriores de la Unión Europea. Freedom, Security and Justice: European legal studies [en línea], 1, 94-122. Disponible en: https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=7292203

Cruz Ángeles, J., 2022. La nueva Ley de Inteligencia Artificial una aliada necesaria para gestionar controles fronterizos, migratorios y de asilo en la Unión Europea. En: G. Vestri, ed., La disrupción tecnológica en la Administración Pública: retos y desafíos de la inteligencia artificial. Cizur Menor: Aranzadi, 97-121.

Csernatoni, R., 2018. Constructing the EU’s high-tech borders: FRONTEX and dual-use drones for border management. European Security [en línea], 27(2), 175-200. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1080/09662839.2018.1481396 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09662839.2018.1481396

De Genova, N., 2013. Spectacles of migrant ‘illegality’: the scene of exclusion, the obscene of inclusion. Ethnic and Racial Studies [en línea], 36(7), 1180-1198. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2013.783710 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2013.783710

Derave, C., Genicot, N., y Hetmanska, N., 2022. The Risks of Trustworthy Artificial Intelligence: The Case of the European Travel Information and Authorisation System. European Journal of Risk Regulation [en línea], 13(3), 389-420. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1017/err.2022.5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/err.2022.5

Dijstelbloem, H., y Broeders, D., 2015. Border surveillance, mobility management and the shaping of non-publics in Europe. European Journal of Social Theory [en línea], 18(1), 21-38. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1177/1368431014534353 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1368431014534353

Dijstelbloem, H., y Meijer, A., 2011. Migration and the new technological borders of Europe [en línea]. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230299382 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230299382

Dumbrava, C., 2021. Artificial intelligence at EU borders. Overview of applications and key issues. Bruselas: Servicio de Investigación del Parlamento Europeo.

Epstein, E., 2007. Guilty Bodies, Productive Bodies, Destructive Bodies: Crossing the Biometric Borders. International Political Sociology [en línea], 1(2), 149–164. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-5687.2007.00010.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-5687.2007.00010.x

European Digital Rights (EDRi), 2022. Uses of AI in immigration and border control. A fundamental rights approval to the Artificial Intelligence Act [en línea]. Bruselas: EDRi. Disponible en: https://edri.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Migration_2-pager-02052022-for-online.pdf

European Migration Network (EMN), 2022. The use of digitalization and artificial intelligence in migration management. Informe. Febrero. Bruselas: EMN.

Everuss, L., 2021. AI, smart borders and migration. En: A. Elliott, ed., The Routledge Social Science Handbook of AI [en línea]. Londres: Routledge, 339-356. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429198533-23 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429198533-23

Forti, M., 2024. Addressing Algorithmic Errors in Data-Driven Border Control Procedures. German Law Journal [en línea], 25(1), 1-11. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1017/glj.2023.102 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/glj.2023.102

Foucault, M. (con A.I. Davidson, ed.), 2008. Birth of Biopolitics: Lectures at the Collège de France, 1978-1979. Nueva York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Gäckle, N., 2020. Taming future mobilities: biopolitics and data behaviourism in the European Travel Information and Authorisation System (ETIAS). Mobilities [en línea], 15(2), 257-272. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1080/17450101.2019.1693725 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17450101.2019.1693725

Garrido Carrillo, F.J., 2023. La inteligencia artificial en el control de los flujos migratorios en la Unión Europea. La necesidad de un marco normativo garantista de los derechos fundamentales. Revista General de Derecho Europeo, 60, 1-39.

Ghidoni, E., y Morondo, D., 2023. El papel de los estereotipos en las formas de desigualdad compleja: algunos apuntes desde la teoría feminista del derecho antidiscriminatorio. Discusiones [en línea], 28, 37-70. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.52292/j.dsc.2022.2325 DOI: https://doi.org/10.52292/j.dsc.2022.2325

Goldner Lang, I., 2024. Security-centric approach in the use of digital technologies in EU migration and asylum policies. Transnational Legal Theory [en línea], 15(4), 591-599. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1080/20414005.2024.2399934 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/20414005.2024.2399934

Guild, E., Mitsilegas, V., y Vavoula, N., 2025. Lawless Borders. The Rule of Law Deficit in European Immigration Control [en línea]. Bristol University Press. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.56687/9781529237801 DOI: https://doi.org/10.51952/9781529237801

Harcourt, B.E., 2007. Against prediction. Profiling, policing, and punishing in an actuarial age [en línea]. The University of Chicago Press. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226315997.001.0001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226315997.001.0001

Hayes, V., y Vermeulen, M., 2012. Borderline, the EU’s New Border Surveillance Initiatives. Berlín: Heinrich Böll Foundation.

Jasmontaite-Zaniewicz, L., y Zomignani Barboza, J., 2021. Disproportionate surveillance: technology assisted and automated decisions in asylum applications in the EU?. International Journal of Refugee Law [en línea], 33, 89-110. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1093/ijrl/eeab031 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ijrl/eeab031

Jeandesboz, J., 2016. Smartening border security in the European Union: An associational inquiry. Security Dialogue [en línea], 47(4), 292–309. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1177/0967010616650226 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0967010616650226

Jeandesboz, J., et al., 2013. The Commission’s Legislative Proposals on Smart Borders: Their Feasibility and Costs. Bruselas: Directorate General for Internal Policies. Policy Department C: Citizen’s Rights and Constitutional Affairs.

Josipovic, I., 2024. Digitalising Asylum Procedures: The Legitimisation of Smartphone Data Extraction for Retrospective Border Control. Geopolitics [en línea], 29(5), 1831-1854. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1080/14650045.2023.2288162 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14650045.2023.2288162

Kilpatrick, J., y Jones, C., 2022. A clear and present danger. Missing safeguards on immigration and asylum EU’s AI act. Londres: Statewatch.

Korkmaz, E.E., 2024. Smart borders, digital identity and big data: how surveillance technologies are used against migrants [en línea]. Bristol University Press. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1332/policypress/9781529233506.001.0001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1332/policypress/9781529233506.001.0001

La Spina, E., 2024. La regulación europea de la IA ante los sesgos y riesgos de discriminación algorítmica en contextos migratorios. Revista CIDOB d’Afers Internacionals [en línea], 138, 171-194. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.24241/rcai.2024.138.3.171 DOI: https://doi.org/10.24241/rcai.2024.138.3.171

Leese, M., 2014.The new profiling: Algorithms, black boxes, and the failure of anti-discriminatory safeguards in the European Union. Security Dialogue [en línea], 45(5), 494-511. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1177/0967010614544204 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0967010614544204

Leese, M., 2016. Exploring the Security/Facilitation Nexus: Foucault at the ‘Smart’ Border. Global Society [en línea], 30(3), 412-429. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1080/13600826.2016.1173016 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13600826.2016.1173016

Leese, M., Noori, S., y Scheel, S., 2022. Data Matters: The Politics and Practices of Digital Border and Migration Management. Geopolitics [en línea], 27(1), 5-25. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1080/14650045.2021.1940538 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14650045.2021.1940538

Lehtonen, P., y Aalto, P., 2017. Smart and secure borders through automated border control systems in the EU? The views of political stakeholders in the Member States. European Security [en línea], 26(2), 207-225. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1080/09662839.2016.1276057 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09662839.2016.1276057

Lyon, D., 2005. The border is everywhere: ID cards, surveillance and the other. En: E. Zuriek y M. Salter, eds., Global Surveillance and Policing. Borders, security, identity. Londres: Willan, 66-82.

Marin, L., 2011. Is Europe Turning into a ‘Technological Fortress’? Innovation and Technology for the Management of EU’s External Borders. En: M. Heldeweg y E. Kica, eds., Regulating Technological Innovation: Legal and Economic Regulation of Technological Innovation [en línea]. Londres: Palgrave Macmillan, 131-151. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230367456_8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230367456_8

Méndez-Fierros, H., 2023. La frontera digital Estados Unidos-México. Representaciones de tecnología y construcción mediática del migrante irregular como amenaza-enemigo. Estudios Fronterizos [en línea], 24, 1-28. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.21670/ref.2317128 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21670/ref.2317128

Michéa, F., y Rousvoal, L., 2021. The Criminal Procedure Out of Itself: A Case Study of The Relationship Between EU Law and Criminal Procedure Using the ETIAS System. European Papers, 6(1), 473-491.

Molnar, P., 2019.Technology on the Margins: AI and Global Migration Management from a Human Rights Perspective. Cambridge International Law Journal [en línea], 8(2), 305-330. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.4337/cilj.2019.02.07 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4337/cilj.2019.02.07

Molnar, P., 2023. Digital border technologies, techno-racism and logics of exclusion. International Migration [en línea], 61(5), 307-312. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1111/imig.13187 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/imig.13187

Molnar, P., 2024. AI surveillance and border tech experiments. Nueva York: The New Press.

Muller, B.J., 2009. Borders, Risks, Exclusions. Studies in Social Justice [en línea], 3(1), 67–78. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.26522/ssj.v3i1.1024 DOI: https://doi.org/10.26522/ssj.v3i1.1024

Musco Eklund, A., 2023. Rule of Law Challenges of ‘Algorithmic Discretion’ & Automation in EU Border Control. A Case Study of ETIAS Through the Lens of Legality. European Journal of migration and Law [en línea], 25(3), 249-274. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1163/15718166-12340152 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/15718166-12340152

Nedelcu, M., y Soysüren, I., 2020. Precarious migrants, migration regimes and digital technologies: the empowerment-control nexus. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies [en línea], 48(8), 1821-1837. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2020.1796263 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2020.1796263

Nobile, R., 2024. La vulnerabilità del migrante nell’era delle smart-borders e delle tecnologie lie-detecting. BioLaw Journal – Rivista di BioDiritto, 1, 289-301.

Oliveira Martins, B., y Gabrielsen Jumbert, M., 2022. EU Border technologies and the co-production of security ‘problems’ and ‘solutions’. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies [en línea], 48(6), 1430-1447. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2020.1851470 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2020.1851470

Ozkul, D., 2023. Automating Immigration and Asylum: The Uses of New Technologies in Migration and Asylum Governance in Europe. Refugee Studies Centre, University of Oxford.

Penasa, S., 2022. Artificial intelligence and the governance of migration: potentialities and pitfalls between technological neutrality and political design. Opinio juris in comparatione, 1, special issue, 94-113.

Pötzsch, H., 2015. The emergence of iBorder: Bordering bodies, networks, and machines. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space [en línea], 33(1), 101–118. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1068/d14050p DOI: https://doi.org/10.1068/d14050p

Pötzsch, H., 2018. IBorder/ing. En: C. Lury y E. Uprichard, eds., Routledge Handbook of Interdisciplinary Research Methods [en línea]. Londres: Routledge. 99–103. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315714523-13 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315714523-13

Romano, A., 2023. Derechos fundamentales e inteligencia artificial emocional en iBorderCtrl: retos de la automatización en el ámbito migratorio. Revista Catalana de Dret Públic [en línea], 66, 237-252. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.58992/rcdp.i66.2023.3928 DOI: https://doi.org/10.58992/rcdp.i66.2023.3928

San Martín Segura, D., 2019. Las lógicas de gobierno de lo fronterizo en el espacio Schengen: la frontera como estriación. Revista CIDOB d’Afers Internacionals [en línea], 122, 15-37. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.24241/rcai.2019.122.2.15 DOI: https://doi.org/10.24241/rcai.2019.122.2.15

San Martín Segura, D., 2025. The quantification of behavioural forecast in administrative legal practice: the algorithmic risk assessment of the ETIAS, Federalismi.it,3, 564-606.

Sassen, S., 2006. Territory, authority, rights: from medieval to Global assemblages. Princeton University Press.

Scheel, S., 2024. Epistemic domination by data extraction: questioning the use of biometrics and mobile phone data analysis in asylum procedures. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies [en línea], 50(9), 2289-2308. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2024.2307782 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2024.2307782

Sontowski, S., 2018. Speed, timing and duration: contested temporalities, techno-political controversies and the emergence of the EU’s smart border. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies [en línea], 44(6), 2730-2746. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2017.1401512 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2017.1401512

Tassinari, F., 2022. The external reach of the interoperability of large-scale IT systems in the AFSJ. Tesis Doctoral. Universidad de Granada.

Tassinari, F., 2025. La interoperabilidad en el espacio de libertad, seguridad, y justicia y el nuevo Reglamento de Inteligencia Artificial. Algunas consideraciones sobre el procedimiento de detección de identidades múltiples. InDret [en línea], 2, 346-386. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.31009/InDret.2025.i2.08 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31009/InDret.2025.i2.08

Taylor, L., y Meissner, F., 2020. A Crisis of Opportunity: Market-Making, Big Data, and the Consolidation of Migration as Risk. Antipode [en línea], 52(1), 270-290. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1111/anti.12583 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/anti.12583

Topak, O.E., et al., 2015. From Smart Borders to Perimeter Security: The Expansion of Digital Surveillance at the Canadian Borders. Geopolitics [en línea], 20(4), 880-89. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1080/14650045.2015.1085024 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14650045.2015.1085024

Trauttmansdorff, P., 2017. The Politics of Digital Borders. En: C. Günay y N. Witjes, eds., Border Politics: Defining Spaces of Governance and Forms of Transgressions [en línea]. Cham: Springer, 107-126. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-46855-6_7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-46855-6_7

Van Dijck, T., 2014. Datafication, dataism and dataveillance: Big Data between scientific paradigm and ideology. Surveillance & society [en línea], 12(2), 197-208. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.24908/ss.v12i2.4776 DOI: https://doi.org/10.24908/ss.v12i2.4776

Vantin, S., 2021. Il diritto antidiscriminatorio nell’era digitale. Potenzialità e rischi per le persone, La Pubblica Amministrazione, le imprese. Milán: Wolters Kluwer.

Vaughan-Williams, N., 2009. The generalised bio-political border? Re-conceptualising the limits of sovereign power. Review of International Studies [en línea], 35(4), 729-749. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0260210509990155 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0260210509990155

Vavoula, N., 2021. Artificial Intelligence (AI) at Schengen Borders: Automated Processing, Algorithmic Profiling and Facial Recognition in the Era of Techno-Solutionism. European Journal of Migration and Law [en línea], 23, 457-484. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1163/15718166-12340114 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/15718166-12340114

Velasco Rico, C.I., y Laukyte, M., 2024. ETIAS system and new proposals to advance the use of AI in public services. Law & Security Review [en línea], 54, 1-9. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2024.106015 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2024.106015

Velasco, J.C., 2022. Prolegómenos a una filosofía política de la frontera. Historia, concepto y mutaciones contemporáneas. Daimon. Revista Internacional de Filosofía [en línea], 87, 11-27. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.6018/daimon.526121 DOI: https://doi.org/10.6018/daimon.526121

Velasco, J.C., 2025. Anatomía de la frontera. Madrid: Tecnos.

Vrăbiescu, J., 2022. Deportation, smart borders and mobile citizens: using digital methods and traditional police activities to deport EU citizens. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies [en línea], 48(8), 1891-1908. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2020.1796267 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2020.1796267

Walters, W., 2006. Border/Control. European Journal of Social Theory [en línea], 9(2), 187-203. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1177/1368431006063332 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1368431006063332