Kuwaiti women’s entry into judgeship in 2020: The long journey from law graduates in 1967 to public prosecutors in 2013, and what happened on the path towards the judiciary

Fatima Alhewail

doi:10.35295/osls.iisl/0000-0000-0000-1362

Authors

Fatima Alhewail Kuwait University College of Law

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.35295/osls.iisl/0000-0000-0000-1362

Keywords:

Women, judgeship, Kuwaiti, coronavirus, mujeres, judicatura, kuwaití

Abstract

On 30 June 2020, Kuwait celebrated the appointment of eight female judges for the first time in the nation’s history. Women’s access to judgeship was preceded by the admittance of women as public prosecutors in 2013, which is the main gate to become a judge in Kuwait. As of 2020, female prosecutors constitute 27 per cent of the total number of public prosecutors in Kuwait. The article points out drivers for change in Kuwaiti society which opened up for women’s appointment as judges. It addresses the five-year period between 2013-2020 preceding the appointment of women judges, and debates that arose when eight women judges were appointed amidst the coronavirus pandemic which broke out in March 2020. Three questions are explored: First, how and why have Kuwaiti women been appointed as judges in 2020, more than five decades after women entered the field of law studies in 1967? Secondly, what forms of opposition were voiced in public through the Kuwaiti media against appointing women as judges? Thirdly, which civil society groups supported women’s entry into judgeship, and what arguments did they use to counter the arguments of the opposition?

El 30 de junio de 2020, Kuwait celebró el nombramiento de ocho juezas por primera vez en la historia del país. El acceso de las mujeres a la judicatura fue precedido por la admisión de mujeres como fiscales en 2013, que es la puerta principal para llegar a ser juez en Kuwait. En 2020, las mujeres fiscales constituyeron el 27% del total de los fiscales de Kuwait. El artículo señala los factores de cambio en la sociedad kuwaití que se abrieron para el nombramiento de juezas. Aborda el lustro 2013-2020 que precedió al nombramiento de juezas, y los debates que surgieron cuando se nombraron ocho juezas en medio de la pandemia de coronavirus que estalló en marzo de 2020. Se exploran tres cuestiones: en primer lugar, ¿cómo y por qué se ha nombrado a mujeres kuwaitíes como juezas en 2020, más de cinco décadas después de que las mujeres entraran en el campo de los estudios jurídicos, en 1967? En segundo lugar, ¿qué formas de oposición se manifestaron en público a través de los medios de comunicación kuwaitíes contra el nombramiento de mujeres como juezas? En tercer lugar, ¿qué grupos de la sociedad civil apoyaron la entrada de las mujeres en la judicatura y qué argumentos utilizaron para contrarrestar los argumentos de la oposición?

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Metrics

Views 300
Downloads:
13(3)_Alhewail_OSLS 163
XML_13(3)_Alhewail_OSLS 3

Author Biography

Fatima Alhewail, Kuwait University College of Law

Assistant Professor at Kuwait University – International Law Department, Sep 2014 till present. She obtained her doctoral degree in International Private Law from the Department of law at the University of Essex, UK. Obtained her masters’ degree (LL.M) in International Private Law from Indiana University, law school, in Bloomington, USA. Her LL.M research focused on the Legal status of Women, Children, and Stateless persons within the Kuwaiti nationality code No. 15 of 1959 as amended. She is also a Board member of the Women Cultural and Social Association in Kuwait, the legal consultant for the Kuwaiti women with no limits from 2014-2017, and active in advocating women rights in Kuwait. Prior to joining the Department of International law at Kuwait University, she worked as a Teaching Assistant & Academic Researcher at Kuwait University until 2013, Visiting Lecturer at Kuwait International Law School, 2012-2013 and as a Legal researcher at the Ministry of Justice, department of legislative documentation, 1999 – 2000.

References

Al Awadhi, B., Al Mubarak, H., and Al Attawi, A., 2009. Women’s rights in the Kuwaiti personal status law and Bahraini shari’a judicial rulings. In: D. Malhas, ed., Family Law Program. Manama: Freedom House.

Al Qabas, 2020. Hayef Wa Alkandari: Tasree’ “Takweet” Alqadaa’ ( هايف والكندري: تسريع “تكويت” القضاء) [Hayef and Al-Kandari: Speeding up the “Kuwaitization” of the judiciary]. Al Qabas [online], 9 June. Available from: https://alqabas.com/article/

-هايف-والكندري-تسريع-تكويت-القضاء [Accessed 15 July 2020].

Alabdullah, H., 2014. Rsmiyyan … Ta’ayeen 22 Wakilat Niyaba Ba’ad Eleid (رسمياً... تعيين 22 وكيلة نيابة بعد العيد ) [Officially… 22 female prosecutors are being appointed after Eid]. Aljarida [online], 3 October. Available from: https://www.aljarida.com/

articles/1462458214089569700/ [Accessed 3 October 2021].

Alabdullah, H., 2019. Majlis Alqadaa’ Yaftah Baab Alqabool Fee Anniyaba Liljinseen (مجلس القضاء يفتح باب القبول في النيابة للجنسين) [The Judicial Council opens the door for admission to the prosecution for both sexes]. Aljarida [online], 17 November. Available from: https://www.aljarida.com/articles/1573918082252905200/ [Accessed 11 July 2020].

Alabdullah, H., 2020a. Binnaji; Lan Nasta’jil “Takweet” Alqadaa’ (بن ناجي: لن نستعجل “تكويت” القضاء ) [Bennaji: We will not rush to “Kuwait” the judiciary]. Aljarida [online], 21 May. Available from: https://www.aljarida.com/articles/

/ [Accessed 1 August 2020].

Alabdullah, H., 2020b. Muhammad Binnaji “LilJarida”: Awdat 62 Mustasharan A’aliqan Fee Misr Muhimma Listienaaf A’amal Almahakim محمد بن ناجي لـ) “الجريدة.”: عودة 62 مستشاراً عالقاً في مصر مهمة لاستئناف عمل المحاكم) [Muhammad binnaji to Al-Jarida: The return of 62 advisers stuck in Egypt is important for the resumption of the work of the courts]. Aljarida [online], 8 June. Available from: https://www.aljarida.com/articles/1591553914843440100 [Accessed 15 July 2020].

Alabdullah, Y., 2019. 5 Malayeen Nasamah Sukkan Alkuwait Fee 2020 (5 ملايين نسمة سكان الكويت في) [5 Million people, the population of Kuwait in 2020]. Aljarida [online], 15 August. Available from: http://m.aljarida.com/articles/

/ [Accessed 30 June 2021].

Alanba, 2020a. Abdul Karim Alkandari Yad’oo Litakweet Alqadaa’ Hatta La Yakon Raheenatan Li’ay Jaliah (عبد الكريم الكندري يدعو لتكويت القضاء حتى لا يكون رهينة لأي جالية ) [Abdul Karim Alkandari calls for Kuwaitization of the judiciary so that it is not held hostage to any community]. Alanba [online], 9 June. Available from: https://www.alanba.com.kw/ar/kuwait-news/973376/09-06-2020 [Accessed 15 July 2020].

Alanba, 2020b. Nuwwab Wa “Thawaabit Alummah” A’n Tawally Almara’ Mansib Alqadaa’: Alafdhal Taqdeem Aljanib Alsharei (نواب و”ثوابت الأمة” عن تولي المرأة منصب القضاء: الأفضل تقديم الجانب الشرعي) [Representatives and “the nation’s constants” on women assuming the position of judge: It is better to present the legal aspect]. Alanba [online], 2 July. Available from: https://www.alanba.com.kw/

ar/kuwait-news/978501/02-07-2020 [Accessed 15 July 2020].

Alanba, 2020c. Talabat Alhokooma Wa Majlis Alomma Bitta’awon Li’esdar Qanoon Fee Hatha Asha’en 30 Jame’at Nafea A’aam Tutaalib Bitakweet Alqadaa’: Dharoora Wataniyya Wa Dostooriyya Wa Matlab Siyady ( طالبت الحكومة ومجلس الأمة بالتعاون لإصدار قانون في هذا الشأن 30 جمعية نفع عام تطالب بتكويت القضاء: ضرورة وطنية ودستورية ومطلب سيادي ) [The government and the National Assembly called for cooperation to issue a law in this regard. 30 public benefit associations demand Kuwaitization of the judiciary: a national and constitutional necessity and a sovereign demand]. Alanba [online], 18 May. Available from: https://www.alanba.com.kw/ar/kuwait-news/cooperatives/968583/18-05-2020--جمعية-نفع-عام-تطالب-بتكويت-القضاء-ضرورة-وطنية-ودستورية-ومطلب-سيادي/ [Accessed 15 July 2020].

Al-Ghanim, L., 2017. Lwlwh alghanim mntda almrah walqadaa' ( لولوة الغانم منتدى المرأة والقضاء ) [Lulwa Alghanim, a forum on women judges 2017]. Women and the Judiciary Forum Lecturers: Dr. Ghazi Al-Ayyash - Dr. Abdul Salam Al-Anzi - Ms. Nasser Al-Kariwin - Ms. Lulwa Al-Ghanem ‘Muntada Almar’a wa Alqadaa’, almuhadiroon. YouTube [online], 8 March. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=%D9%85%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%AF%D9%89+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A9+%D9%88+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%A1+ [Accessed 30 may 2021].

Alhajeri, M., 2017. Hawla Almanassati La ‘Alaiha: situ muqarabatin hawla almar’s wa alqadaa fee Dawlat Alkuwait (حول المنصة، لا عليها: ست مقاربات حول المرأة والقضاء في دولة الكويت ) [Around the bench, not on it: six approaches to women and the judiciary in the State of Kuwait]. Paper presented at the Women’s Cultural and Social Society (WCSS) Forum, 2017. Muntada al-mar’a wal-qada. Kuwait, 8 March. (Translated from Arabic by the author).

Aljarida, 2020. Jameyyat Nafea A’am: Takweet Alqadaa’ Kamilan Dharoora Wataniyya (جمعيات نفع عام: تكويت القضاء كاملاً ضرورة وطنية ) [Public Benefit Associations: Kuwaitization of the entire judiciary is a national necessity]. Aljarida [online], 18 May. Available from: https://www.aljarida.com/articles/1589720873771935800/ [Accessed 15 July 2020].

Alkafrawy, M.A, 2020a. Ighlaaq Alanshita Attijariyya Bilkuwait Bisabab Corona .. Wa Mubadaraat Sha’biyya Litaqleel Alkhasaer ( إغلاق الأنشطة التجارية بالكويت بسبب كورونا.. ومبادرات شعبية لتقليل الخسائر ) [Closure of commercial activities in Kuwait due to Corona... and popular initiatives to reduce losses]. Aljazeera [online], 21 March. Available from: https://www.aljazeera.net/ebusiness/2020/3/21 [Accessed 15 July 2020].

Alkafrawy, M.B, 2020b. Intatharat-ha Oqoodan Taweelah .. Almara’ Alkuwaitiyya Tataraqqab Ta’yeenha Bimansib Qadia ( انتظرتها عقودا طويلة.. المرأة الكويتية تترقب تعيينها بمنصب قاضية ) [She has been waiting for many decades]. Kuwaiti women are waiting for her appointment as a judge]. Aljazeera [online], 8 June 2020. Available from: https://www.aljazeera.net/news/women/2020/6/8/ انتظرتها-عقودا-طويلة-المرأة-الكويتية [Accessed 3 October 2021].

Alkhaldi, K., 2020. Yawmiyyaat Alhajr Almanzili Fee Alkuwait ( يوميات الحجر المنزلي في الكويت ) [Home quarantine diaries in Kuwait]. The New Arab [online], 3 April. Available from: https://www.alaraby.co.uk/يوميات-الحجر-المنزلي-في-الكويت. [Accessed 15 July 2020].

Alkhaleej Aljadeed News, 2020. Bldyt alkuwait tusarrih 50% mn alwafdyn wa ttlub t'eyyn 400 mwatn fwran ( بلدية الكويت تسرح 50% من الوافدين وتطلب تعيين 400 مواطن فورا - الخليج الجديد ). The New Khalij news [online], 1 July. Available from: https://thenewkhalij.news/article/196453/%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%AA-%D8%AA%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8-%D8%A8%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%8A%D9%8A%D9%86-400-%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%86-%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%AF-%D9%86%D9%82%D8%B5-%D8%AA%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AD-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86 [Accessed 15 July 2020].

Alkhaleej Online, 2018. ‘Takweet Alwatha’f’ Khotta Littakhallus Min Albatala A’la Hisaab Alwafideen. (“تكويت الوظائف”.. خطة للتخلص من البطالة على حساب الوافدين) [“Kuwaitization of jobs”, a plan to eliminate unemployment at the expense of expatriates]. Alkhaleej [online], 31 August. Available from: http://cli.re/GAym4G [Accessed 31 August 2018].

Almuqatei [@al_moqatei], 2019. I don’t think that you disagree with me on that the judiciary is a sovereign public authority. Putting such authority in the hands of non-Kuwaitis is not constitutional. The verdicts based on this violation are null. Having courts run completely by foreign judges and councilors, makes your duty toward takweet huge [Tweet]. Twitter [online], 21 January. Available from: https://twitter.com/al_moqatei/status/1087353569760694275 [Accessed 15 July 2020].

Almuqatei [@al_moqatei], 2020. It is unconstitutional to assign judgeship and judicial consultancy to foreigners. Article 6 of the constitution defines the judiciary as one of the three public authorities, and should be run by nationals according to this article. Even public jobs, which are of a less sensitive nature, are to be run by nationals according to article 26. Foreigners in the judiciary leads to nullification of judgements [Tweet]. Twitter [online], 25 June. Available from: https://twitter.com/al_moqatei/status/1276112359161987073 [Accessed 15 July 2020].

Almusleh, M., 2020. Alfares Anhat Khadamaat 135 Muqeeman Takweet “Aliskaan” Khilal A’aam ( الفارس أنهت خدمات 135 مقيماً تكويت “الإسكان” خلال عام ) [Al-Fares Terminated the Services/Jobs of 135 Foreign Residents Kuwaitiazing the Ministry of Housing within a year]. Al Qabas [online], 16 June. Available from: https://alqabas.com/

article/5780447-وزيرة-الإسكان-تنهي-خدمات-33-من-الموظفين-الوافدين-في-السكنية [Accessed 30 May 2020].

Alnajjar, A., and Alyousef, Y., 2014. Ba’da Isdar Wazeen Al’adil Yaqoub Alsanea Qararahu Bita’yeen 62 Wakeelan Wa Wakeela .. Almaraa’ Wakeelat Niyaba ( بعد إصدار وزير العدل يعقوب الصانع قراره بتعيين 62 وكيلاً ووكيلة: المرأة وكيلة نيابة.. رسمياً) [After the Minister of Justice Yaqoub Al-Sanea issued his decision appointing 62 male and female public prosecutors: Woman is officially a public prosecutor]. Al-Watan [online], 4 November. Available from: http://alwatan.kuwait.tt/articledetails.

aspx?id=396874&yearquarter=20144 [Accessed 11 July 2020].

Alsharq News 2020. Alkuwait Tastaghny A’n 250 Alf Wafid Khilaal 3 Ash-hur Ba’d Corona .. Ta’arraf A’la Tafaseel Alkhutta (الكويت تستغني عن 250 ألف وافد خلال 3 أشهر بعد كورونا .. تعرف على تفاصيل الخطة ). [Kuwait dispenses with 250 thousand expatriates within 3 months after Corona. Learn about the details of the plan]. Alsharq [online], 17 April. Available from: https://al-sharq.com/article/17/04/2020/

الكويت-تستغني-عن-٢٥٠-ألف-وافد-خلال-٣-أشهر-بعد-كورونا-تعرف-على-تفاصيل-الخطة [Accessed 17 April 2020].

Al-Watan, 2012. Alhoqoqiyyon Yarawn Qaraar “Almadaniyya” Thulm Feema Yasifoho Ashar’eyoona Bissaeb: Ashari’a VS Law (الحقوق VS الحقوقيون يرون قرار “المدنية” ظلم فيما يصفه الشرعيون بالصائب: الشريعة ) [Law students see the “civilian” decision as an injustice in what the legal scholars describe as correct: the law vs the Sharia]. Al-Watan [online], 6 June. Available from: http://alwatan.kuwait.tt/articledetails.

aspx?id=199753&yearquarter=20122 [Accessed 25 October 2020].

Al-Watan, 2012. Ilzaam ‘Ala’dl’ Qabool Awraq Khirreejat Liwadheefat Wakeel Niyaba ( إلزام “العدل” قبول أوراق خريجات لوظيفة وكيل نيابة ) [Obligating “Justice” to accept the papers of female graduates for the position of public prosecutor]. Al-Watan [online], 22 April. Available from: http://alwatan.kuwait.tt/articledetails.aspx?

id=188974&yearquarter=20122 [Accessed 30 June 2021].

Alyoum Assabea, 2020. Alahad Almuqbil Awdat Ala’mal Alhokoomy Fee Alkuwait Ba’da Shahrain Min Attawaqquf ( الأحد المقبل عودة العمل الحكومى فى الكويت بعد شهرين من التوقف بسبب كورونا ) [Next Sunday, government work in Kuwait will return after two months of stopping due to Corona]. Alyoum Assabea [online], 15 June. Available from: https://www.youm7.com/story/2020/6/15/الأحد-المقبل-عودة-العمل-الحكومى-فى-الكويت-بعد-شهرين-من/4825915 [Accessed 15 July 2020].

Amiri Decree no. 23 of 1990 Concerning the Organization of the Judiciary (23/1990). Kuwait University College manual 2020-2021 [online]. Available from: https://portal.ku.edu.kw/manuals/admission/en/colleges_manual.pdf [Accessed 15 July 2020].

Azza’by, A.A., 2019. Alkuwait: Khams Jihaat Hokomiyya Tastaghny A’n Alwafideen Al’aam Almuqbil ( الكويت: 5 جهات حكومية تستغني عن الوافدين العام المقبل) [Kuwait: 5 government agencies to dispense with expatriates next year]. The New Arab [online], 19 November. Available from: https://www.alaraby.co.uk/الكويت-5-جهات-حكومية-تستغني-عن-الوافدين-العام-المقبل [Accessed 30 May 2020].

Cabinet of Ministers’ (majlis alwozara’a) decision No. 904/2002 as amended.

Cardinal, M., 2017. The Politics of Exclusion: Women Public Prosecutors and Criminal Court Judges in Syria (1975–2009). In: N. Sonneveld and M. Lindbekk, eds., Women Judges in the Muslim World [online]. Leiden/Boston: Brill, 237–258. Available from: https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/7c675911-9af4-4d61-bb97-ae0cc3a1ed5f/external_content.pdf [Accessed 16 November 2022].

Case No. 3134/2011, Administrative / 7, Kuwait.

Central Statistical Bureau, 2014. Almalameh alasasiya lil’amala alwataniya fi alqita’e elkhas (الملامح الأساسية للعمالة الوطنية في القطاع الخاص ) [Basic features of national employment in the private sector]. 30 June.

Central Statistical Bureau, 2019. LMIS Employment in Government Sector as of 30 June 2019 [online]. Available from: https://www.csb.gov.kw/Pages/Statistics_en?

ID=13&ParentCatID=1 [Accessed 30 June 2021].

Constitution of the state of Kuwait 1962 [online]. Available from: http://www.kna.kw/clt-html5/run.asp?id=2024 [Accessed 30 May 2020].

Doumato, E.A., 2011. Women in civic and political life: Reform under authoritarian regimes. In: M.A. Tétreault, G. Okruhlik and A. Kapiszewski, eds., Political change in the Arab Gulf states: Stuck in transition. Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 193–223.

Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA), 2019. Women in the Judiciary in the Arab States: Removing Barriers, Increasing Numbers. (E/ESCWA/ECW/2019/2) [online]. Study developed in partnership with the International Commission of Jurists (ICJ) and the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). Beirut: ESCWA. Available from: https://www.unescwa.org/sites/default/files/pubs/pdf/women-judiciary-arab-states-english_0.pdf [Accessed 2 February 2021].

Elomäki, A., 2015. The economic case for gender equality in the European Union: Selling gender equality to decision-makers and neoliberalism to women’s organizations. European Journal of Women’s Studies [online], 22(3), 288–302. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1177/1350506815571142 [Accessed 15 July 2020].

Fu’aad, I., 2020. AlKuwait Tabdaa’ Khutuwaat “Khuttat Attakweet” Lilistighnaa’ An Ala’mala Alajnabiyya .. Wazeer Annaft Yu’lin Eqaf Ta’yeen Gheer Alkuwaityyeen Fee “Albitrool Alkuwaityya” Wa Sharikat-ha Attabi’a .. Wa Taharruk Niyaby Likhafdh A’daddohom Fee Kaffat Alqita’aat Alhokomiyya Wa Atta’leem ( الكويت تبدأ خطوات “خطة التكويت” للاستغناء عن العمالة الأجنبية.. وزير النفط يعلن ايقاف تعيين غير الكويتيين فى “البترول الكويتية” وشركاتها التابعة.. وتحرك نيابي لخفض أعدادهم فى كافة القطاعات الحكومية والتعليم ) [Kuwait begins the steps of the “Kuwaitization plan” to dispense with foreign workers. The Minister of Oil announces the suspension of the appointment of non-Kuwaitis in the “Kuwait Petroleum” and its subsidiaries. A parliamentary move to reduce their numbers in all government and education sectors]. Alyoum Assabe’a [online], 11 June. Available from: https://www.youm7.com/4817843 [Accessed 11 June 2020].

Habib, M., 2017. Alasousi: “Wakeelat Aniyaba” Jadeerat Bilmansib ( العسعوسي: “وكيلات النيابة” جديرات بالمنصب ) [Al-Asousi: “The female prosecutors are worthy of the position”]. Al Qabas [online], 21 September. Available from: https://alqabas.com/article/437497-العسعوسي-وكيلات-النيابة-جديرات-بال [Accessed 3 October 2022].

Habib, M., 2020. Al-Na’ib al-am lil-Qabas: nuwasil khittat al-takwit. Hadith tarikhi… 8 kuwaitiyyat qadiyat. النائب العام لـ “القبس :”نواصل خطة التكویت حدث تاریخي ..8 كویتیات قاضیات [The Public prosecutor to Al Qabas: “We continue the Kuwaitization strategy”. Historic event… 8 Kuwaiti women judges]. Al Qabas [online], 30 June. Available from: https://alqabas.com/article/5783441- مصدر-لالقبس-النائب-العام-اعتمد-ترقية-8-وكيلات-نيابة-إلى-قاضيات [Accessed 15 July 2020].

Kapiszewski, A., Okruhlik, G., and Tétreault, M.A., 2011. Twenty-First-Century Politics in the Arab Gulf States. In: M.A. Tétreault, G. Okruhlik and A. Kapiszewski, eds., Political change in the Arab Gulf states: Stuck in transition. Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1–18.

Khalifa, A., 2012. Alba’du Akkada Anna Addustoor Sawaa Baina Arrajul Walmara’ Walaakharoon Raa’w Anna Ala’aatifa Sataghlub A’ala A’amaliha. Talabat Alhoqooq Ikhtalafoo Hawla Ahaqqiyyat Almara’ Fee Alwosool Lilqadaa’ ( البعض أكد أن الدستور ساوى بين الرجل والمرأة والآخرون رأوا أن العاطفة ستغلب على عملها .. طلبة الحقوق اختلفوا حول أحقية المرأة في الوصول للقضاء) [Some asserted that the constitution equaled between men and women, and others believed that passion would prevail over her work. Law students differed over the right of women to access the judiciary]. Al-Anba [online] 19 October. Available from: http://pdf.alanba.com.kw/PDF/2012/

/19-10-2012/viewer/files/19-10-2012.pdf [Accessed 13 July 2020].

KUNA News 2019a. AlAqeel: 72% Min Al’amileen Fee Alqita’ Alkhas Gheer Kuwaityyen Wa Gheer Jami’yeen ( العقيل: 72% من العاملين في القطاع الخاص غير كويتيين وغير جامعيين ) [Al-Aqeel: 72% of workers in the private sector are non-Kuwaiti and not university students]. AlJarida [online], 17 April. Available from: https://www.aljarida.com/articles/1555497630367240200/ [Accessed 30 June 2021].

KUNA News, 2019b. Ra’is al-a’la lil-qada’ al-kuwaiti: takwit 90 bil-mi’a min al-qada’ ‘am 2025 (رئيس الأعلى للقضاء الكويتي: تكويت ٩٠ بالمئة من القضاء عام ٢٠٢٥ ) [President of the Kuwaiti: Prospects for Kuwaitizing the judiciary by 90 per cent within the year 2025]. KUNA News [online], 11 September. Available from: https://www.kuna.net.

kw/ArticleDetails.aspx?id=2818229 [Accessed 30 June 2020].

Kuwait Central of Statistical Bureau, 2017-2018. Annual Statistical Abstract, 2017–2018. Issue 53 [online]. Available from: https://www.csb.gov.kw/Pages/Statistics_en?

ID=18&ParentCatID=2 [Accessed 30 June 2021].

Kuwait International Law School (KILAW’s), no date. [Official website]. Available from: https://kilaw.edu.kw/academic-departments/english-legal-courses-department/ [Accessed 1 August 2020].

Kuwait University, alumni record, law school, 2016–2017.

Kuwait University, alumni record, law school, 2017–2018.

Law no. 62 of 1996 amending Law no. 42 of 1964 on the regulation of the legal profession before courts.

Lazim, A., 2020. Ala’laa Lilqadaa’ E’atamada Ta’yeen Alqadyaat (الأعلى للقضاء اعتمد تعيين القاضيات ) [The Supreme Judicial Council approved the appointment of female judges]. Alrai [online], 8 July. Available from: https://www.alraimedia.com/

Home/Details?id=2105a564-b6e1-4fe2-8228-0202d8f2af5b [Accessed 15 July 2020].

Lindbekk, M., and Sonneveld, N., eds., 2017. Women judges in the Muslim world: A comparative study of discourse and practice [online]. Leiden/Boston: Brill. Available from: https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/7c675911-9af4-4d61-bb97-ae0cc3a1ed5f/external_content.pdf [Accessed 16 November 2022].

Maktabi, R., 2016. Female citizenship and family law in Kuwait and Qatar: Globalization and pressures for reform in two rentier states. Nidaba [online], 1(1), 20–34. Available from: https://journals.lub.lu.se/nidaba/article/download/

/14335/40603 [Accessed 16 November 2022].

Maktabi, R., 2017. Reluctant Feminists? Islamist MPs and the Representation of Women in Kuwait after 2005. Die Welt des Islams [online], 57, 427–457. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1163/15700607-05734p08 [Accessed 16 November 2022].

Maktabi, R., 2020a. Courting women in the Gulf monarchies: State power, gender and judging. Oñati Socio-Legal Series [online], this issue.

Maktabi, R., 2020b. Institutional legal reform in Kuwait after 2011: The paradoxes of establishing rule of law amidst authoritarian upgrading. Hawwa: Journal of the Middle East and the Islamic World, 18, 357–395.

Mather, L., 2003. Gender in context: Women in family law. In: U. Schultz and G. Shaw, eds., Women in the world’s legal professions. Oxford: Hart, 33–47.

Mehdi, R., 2017. Lady judges of Pakistan: imbodying the changing living tradition of Islam. In: N. Sonneveld and M. Lindbekk, eds., Women Judges in the Muslim World, a comparative study of discourse and practice [online]. Leiden/Boston: Brill, 204–236. Available from: https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/7c675911-9af4-4d61-bb97-ae0cc3a1ed5f/external_content.pdf [Accessed 16 November 2022].

Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2021. Kuwait Vision 2035: New Kuwait [online]. Available from: https://www.mofa.gov.kw/en/kuwait-state/kuwait-vision-2035/ [Accessed 30 June 2021].

Mubashir Alkuwait, 2020. Al-Rodhan: 30% Min Muwathafee “Attijara” Yudawimoon Bilmarhala Athanya ( الروضان: 30% من موظفي “التجارة” يداومون بالمرحلة الثانية ) [Al-Roudhan: 30% of the “Tijara” employees attend the second stage]. Mubasher [online], 21 June. Available from: https://www.mubasher.info/

news/3656662/الروضان-30-من-موظفي-التجارة-يداومون-بالمرحلة-الثانية/ [Accessed 21 June 2020].

Qanat Al A’lam, 2019. Qareeban Sayatimmu Ta’yeen Awwal Qadiya Fee Alkuwait (قريباً... سيتم تعيين أول قاضية في الكويت ) [Soon... the first female judge in Kuwait will be appointed]. Qanat Al-A’lam [online], 21 June. Available from: https://www.alalam.ir/news/4282486/%20قريباً--سيتم-تعيين-أول-قاضية-في-الكويت [Accessed 3 October 2021].

Sa’eed, I., 2012. ‘Alisti’naf’ Ayyadat Hokm Rafdh Da’waa Shorouq Alfailakawi Qabooluha Wakeel Noyaba (“الاستئناف” أيدت حكم رفض دعوى شروق الفيلكاوي قبولها وكيل نيابة ) [The “Appeal” upheld the ruling rejecting the lawsuit of Shorouq Alfailakawi, to accept her as a public prosecutor]. Al Watan [online], 25 January. Available from: http://alwatan.kuwait.tt/articledetails.aspx?id=167436&yearquarter=20121 [Accessed 30 June 2020].

Schultz, U., and Shaw, G., eds., 2014. Women in the Judiciary. London: Routledge Taylor & Francis.

Sky News Arabiya, 2020. Alkuwait .. Ijra’aat Jadeeda Limuwajahat Corona (الكويت.. إجراءات جديدة لمواجهة كورونا) [Kuwait: new measures to confront Corona]. Sky News Arabiya [online], 9 March. Available from: https://www.skynewsarabia.com/

middle-east/1326994- الكويت-إجراءات-جديدة-لمواجهة-كورونا [Accessed 15 July 2020].

Sonneveld, N., 2017. Women’s access to legal education and their appointment to the judiciary: The Dutch, Egyptian, and Indonesian cases compared. In: N. Sonneveld and M. Lindbekk, eds., Women Judges in the Muslim World, a comparative study of discourse and practice [online]. Leiden/Boston: Brill, 51–100. Available from: https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/7c675911-9af4-4d61-bb97-ae0cc3a1ed5f/external_content.pdf [Accessed 16 November 2022].

Tétreault, M.A., 2000. Stories of democracy: Politics and society in contemporary Kuwait. New York: Columbia University Press.

Women’s Cultural and Social Society (WCSS), 2016. Mu’tamar al-mar’a wal-qada’: tajribat al-mar’a al-’arabiyya fil-qada’ [Women and the Judiciary conference proceedings]. Booklet. Kuwait, 2–3 March.

Women’s Cultural and Social Society (WCSS), 2017. Muntada al-mar’a wal-qada’ [Women and the Judiciary forum proceedings]. Kuwait, 8 March.

World Health Organization (WHO), 2020. Listings of WTO’s Response to COVID-19 [online]. 29 June. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/29-06-2020-covidtimeline [Accessed 15 July 2020].

WorldoMeter, 2020. Kuwait Demographics [online]. Available from: https://www.worldometers.info/demographics/kuwait-demographics/ [Accessed 30 June 2021].

Zaki, A., 2012. DoKhool Almar’aa “Silk Alqadaa’” Baina Tarheeb Wa Tahtheer .. Wa Alhajeri Lil ‘Anba’ Kuntu Awwala Man Rafa’a Qadiyya Bihatha Asha’en ( دخول المرأة “سلك القضاء” بين ترحيب وتحذير.. والهاجري لـ “الأنباء”: كنت أول من رفع قضية بهذا الشأن ) [Women’s entry into the “judicial corps” between a welcome and a warning.. Al-Hajri to Al-Anbaa: I was the first to file a case in this regard]. Al-Anba [online], 17 September. Available from: https://www.alanba.com.kw/ar/kuwait-news/325194/17-09-2012-دخول-المراة-سلك-القضاءبين-ترحيب-وتحذير-والهاجري-لـ-الانباء-كنت-اول-رفع-قضية-بهذا-الشان/ [Accessed 13 July 2020].