Considering strategies designed to counter radicalisation
Comparative reflections on approaches in the United Kingdom and Belgium
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.35295/osls.iisl/0000-0000-0000-1197Keywords:
Counter Radicalisation Strategy, Extremism, Terrorism, PreventAbstract
This article focuses on the issue of counter radicalisation strategy, examining the efficacy and the weaknesses of policy initiatives designed to prevent violent extremism. In order to scrutinize various approaches toward combatting the problem of “radicalisation”, we compare and contrast policy and practices in the United Kingdom with counter measures adopted in Belgium. Drawing on a range of examples from these two countries, it is argued that context sensitive and situated multi-agency approaches to counter radicalization are more likely to engage individuals at risk of being drawn into violent extremism and are also less likely to (re)produce iatrogenic effects. Our analysis suggests that, in order to fully understanding what may ostensibly be perceived as individual proclivities toward violence, the role of structural, institutional and environmental factors is significant. We posit that these factors need to be given greater credence in both explanations for “extremism” and processes and practices implemented to reduce the risk of harm.
Downloads
Metrics
Global Statistics ℹ️
|
1591
Views
|
2369
Downloads
|
|
3960
Total
|
|
References
Abbas, T., 2020. Islamophobia as racialised biopolitics in the United Kingdom. Philosophy and Social Criticism [online], 46(5), 497–511. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1177/0191453720903468 [Accessed 19 February 2021]. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0191453720903468
Ahmed, W., 2017. Prevent Referrals: The Story Behind the Headlines. Huffington Post [online], 27 November. Available from: https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/prevent-referrals-the-story-beyond-the-headlines_uk_5a157af8e4b0f401dfa7ec29 [Accessed 11 March 2019].
Aked, H., 2020. False Positives: The Prevent Counter-extremism Policy in Healthcare. London: Medact.
Allen, C., Isakjee, A., and Ögtem-Young, Ö., 2019. Counter-Extremism, PREVENT and the Extreme Right Wing: Lessons Learned and Future Challenges. LIAS Working Paper Series [online], 2. Available from: https://doi.org/10.29311/lwps.201923074 [Accessed 19 February 2021]. DOI: https://doi.org/10.29311/lwps.201923074
Baillergeau, E., 2018. Médiation et radicalisme violent en Belgique. la prévention sociale/générale à l’ère de la lutte contre le terrorisme. Synthèse présentée à la journée européenne ‘Prévention des processus de radicalisation violente en Europe : quels rôles pour la médiation ?’ CreE.A/Haute Ecole de Liège, 2 février 2018.
Bonelli, L., and Ragazzi, F., 2019. La lutte contre la “radicalisation”. Genèse et expansion d’un nouveau lieu commun administrative en France et dans l’Union Européenne. Archives de politique criminelle [online], 41, 119-145. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3917/apc.041.0119 [Accessed 19 February 2021]. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3917/apc.041.0119
Busher, J., and Jerome, L., 2020. The Prevent Duty in Education Impact, Enactment and Implications. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45559-0
CAGE, 2013. The Prevent Strategy: A Cradle to Grave Police State [online]. London: CAGE. Available from: https://www.cage.ngo/prevent-strategy-cradle-grave-police-state [Accessed 19 February 2021].
CAGE, 2018. The “Science” of Pre-Crime: The Secret “Radicalisation” Study Underpinning Prevent [online]. London: CAGE. Available from: https://www.cage.ngo/the-science-of-pre-crime [Accessed 19 February 2021].
Cameron, D., 2015. [Speech on Extremism. Transcript] (online). Delivered at Ninestiles School, Birmingham, 20 July. London: Prime Minister’s Office, 10 Downing Street/The RT Hon David Cameron. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/extremism-pm-speech [Accessed 12 January 2020].
Department for Communities and Local Government, 2007. Preventing Violent Extremism: Winning Hearts and Minds. London: HMSO.
Dodd, V., 2009. Government anti-terrorism strategy spies on innocent. The Guardian [online], 16 October. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2009/oct/16/anti-terrorism-strategy-spies-innocents [Accessed 19 February 2021].
Dodd, V., 2020. Extinction Rebellion placed on terrorism police’s watchlist of extremist ideologies. The Guardian [online], 11 January. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/jan/11/extinction-rebellion-could-sue-police-listing-extremist-ideology [Accessed 19 February 2021].
Edmeades, A., 2016. Preventing Education? Human Rights and UK Counter-terrorism policy in schools [online]. London: Rights Watch (UK). Available from: https://www.rightsandsecurity.org/assets/downloads/preventing-education-final-to-print-3.compressed-1_.pdf [Accessed 19 February 2021].
Y (A Minor: Wardship) [2015] EWHC 2098 (Fam). Family Law Week [online]. Available from: https://www.familylawweek.co.uk/site.aspx?i=ed145919 [Accessed 19 February 2021].
Gearty, C., 2000. Terror. London: Routledge.
Geertz, C., 1973. The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays. New York: Basic books.
Grierson, J., 2019. My son was terrified: how Prevent alienates UK Muslims. The Guardian [online], 27 January. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2019/jan/27/prevent-muslim-community-discrimination [Accessed 19 February 2021].
Grierson, J., and Sabbagh, D., 2020. Largest number of Prevent referrals related to far-right extremism. The Guardian [online], 26 November. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2020/nov/26/just-one-in-10-prevent-referrals-found-at-risk-of-radicalisation [Accessed 19 February 2021].
Grierson, J., Dodd, V., and Walker, P., 2020. Putting Extinction Rebellion on extremist list “completely wrong”, says Keir Starmer. The Guardian, [online], 13 January. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/jan/13/priti-patel-defends-inclusion-of-extinction-rebellion-on-terror-list [Accessed 19 February 2021].
Halliday, J., 2016. Almost 4,000 people referred to UK deradicalisation scheme last year. The Guardian [online], 20 March. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/mar/20/almost-4000-people-were-referred-to-uk-deradicalisation-scheme-channel-last-year [Accessed 19 February 2021].
Heath-Kelly, C., 2017. The geography of pre-criminal space: epidemiological imaginations of radicalisation risk in the UK Prevent Strategy, 2007–2017. Critical Studies on Terrorism [online], 10(2), 297-319. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/17539153.2017.1327141 [Accessed 19 February 2021]. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17539153.2017.1327141
Hebberecht, P., and Baillergeau, E., eds., 2012. Social Crime Prevention in Late Modern Europe: A Comparative Perspective. Brussels: VUB Press.
HM Government, 2008. The Prevent Strategy: A Guide for Local Partners in England. Stopping people becoming or supporting terrorists and violent extremists. London: HMSO.
HM Government, 2011. CONTEST: The United Kingdom’s Strategy for Countering Terrorism (Cm 8123) [online]. London: HMSO. Available from: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/97995/strategy-contest.pdf [Accessed 19 February 2021].
Home Office, 2011. Prevent Strategy (Cm 8092) [online]. London: HMSO. Available from: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/97976/prevent-strategy-review.pdf [Accessed 2 April 2018].
Home Office, 2015a. Channel Duty Guidance [online]. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/channel-guidance [Accessed 17 June 2018].
Home Office, 2015b. Prevent Duty Guidance [online]. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/prevent-duty-guidance [Accessed 20 February 2021].
Home Office, 2018. Individuals Referred to and Supported through the Prevent Programme Statistics, April 2016 to March 2017 [online]. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/individuals-referred-to-and-supported-through-the-prevent-programme-statistics [Accessed 17 June 2018].
Hussain, A., et al., 2020. Talking Our Way Out of Conflict: Critical reflections on mediated dialogue as a tool for secondary level CVE [online]. University of Manchester. Available from: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/834431/Ajmal_Hussain_Hilary_Pilkington_-_Talking_Our_Way_Out_of_Conflict_Post_Publication_Revision.pdf [Accessed 19 February 2021].
James, A., 2018. I’m a doctor, not a counter-terrorism operative: let me do my job. The Guardian [online], 21 March. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/mar/21/doctor-counter-terrorism-mental-health-patients-radicalisation-prevent [Accessed 19 February 2021].
Khaleeli, H., 2015. You worry they could take your kids: Is the Prevent strategy demonising Muslim schoolchildren? The Guardian [online], 23 September. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2015/sep/23/prevent-counter-terrorism-strategy-schools-demonising-muslim-children [Accessed 19 February 2021].
Lindekilde, L., 2013. Assessing the Impact of Counter-Radicalisation Prevention Policies on End Target Groups: The Case of Denmark. European Journal of Criminal Policy and Research [online], 18(4), 385-402. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10610-012-9178-y [Accessed 19 February 2021]. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10610-012-9178-y
Massoumi, N., et al., 2019a. On the Frontline: is there any alternative to the Prevent counter terrorism policy? Discover Society [online], 4 September. Available from: https://discoversociety.org/2019/09/04/on-the-frontline-is-there-any-alternative-to-the-prevent-counter-terrorism-policy/ [Accessed 19 February 2021].
Massoumi, N., et al., 2019b. Secrecy, coercion and deception in research on “terrorism” and “extremism”. Contemporary Social Science [online], 15(2). Available from:https://doi.org/10.1080/21582041.2019.1616107 [Accessed 19 February 2021]. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/21582041.2019.1616107
Modood, T., and Meer, N., 2019. The Racialisation of Muslims. In: I. Zempi and I. Awan, eds., The Routledge International Handbook of Islamophobia. London: Routledge.
Mythen, G., 2020. Against the Odds? Unravelling the Paradoxes of Risk Prevention in Counter Radicalisation Strategy. In: J. Pratt and J. Thompson, eds., Criminal Justice, Risk and the Revolt Against Uncertainty. London: Palgrave Macmillan, pp 167–189. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37948-3_8
Mythen, G., and Walklate, S., 2016. Counter-terrorism and the Reconstruction of (in)security: Divisions, Dualisms, Duplicities. British Journal of Criminology [online], 56(6), 1107–1124. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azw030 [Accessed 19 February 2021]. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azw030
Mythen, G., et al., 2020. Disputing Security and Risk: The Convoluted Politics of Uncertainty. In: I. Scoones and A. Stirling, eds., The Politics of Uncertainty. London: Routledge.
Mythen, G., Walklate, S., and Khan, F., 2013. Why Should We Have to Prove we’re Alright? Counter-Terrorism, Risk and Partial Securities. Sociology [online], 47(2), 382–397. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1177/0038038512444811 [Accessed 19 February 2021]. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0038038512444811
Mythen, G., Walklate, S., and Peatfield, E., 2017. Assembling and Deconstructing Radicalisation: A Critique of the Logic of Drivers. Critical Social Policy [online], 37(2), 180–201. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1177/0261018316683463 [Accessed 19 February 2021]. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0261018316683463
O’Toole, T., 2015. Prevent: from hearts and minds to muscular liberalism. Public Spirit [online]. November. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/291997579_Prevent_from_%27hearts_and_minds%27_to_%27muscular_liberalism%27 [Accessed 11 March 2019].
Parker, D., et al., 2017. Challenges for effective counter-terrorism communication. Practitioner insights and policy implications for preventing radicalisation, disrupting attack planning and mitigating terrorist attacks. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism [online], 42(3), 264-291. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2017.1373427 [Accessed 19 February 2021]. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2017.1373427
Pilkington, H., and Acik, N., 2020. Not Entitled to Talk: (Mis)recognition, Inequality and Social Activism of Young Muslims. Sociology [online], 54(1), 181–198. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1177/0038038519867630 [Accessed 19 February 2021]. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0038038519867630
Quinn, B., 2016. Nursery “raised fears of radicalisation over boy’s cucumber drawing”. The Guardian [online], 11 March. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/mar/11/nursery-radicalisation-fears-boys-cucumber-drawing-cooker-bomb [Accessed 19 February 2021].
Qurashi, F., 2018. The Prevent strategy and the UK “war on terror”: Embedding infrastructures of surveillance in Muslim communities. Palgrave Communications [online], 4, 17. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-017-0061-9 [Accessed 11 March 2019]. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-017-0061-9
Qureshi, A., 2017. Our Criticism of Prevent is Based on Facts, not Myths. Al Jazeera [online], 4 July. Available from: https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/07/criticism-prevent-based-facts-myths-170703072558455.html [Accessed 8 April 2018].
Ratcliffe, P., 2012. Community cohesion: Reflections on a flawed paradigm. Critical Social Policy [online], 32(2), 262–281. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1177/0261018311430455 [Accessed 19 February 2021]. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0261018311430455
Renard, T., and Coolsaet, R., 2018. From the Kingdom to the Caliphate and Back: Returnees in Belgium. In: T. Renard and R. Coolsaet, eds., Returnees: Who are they, why are they (not) coming back and how should we deal with them? Assessing Policies on Returning Foreign Terrorist Fighters in Belgium, Germany and the Netherlands. Egmont Paper 101 [online], 19–38. Available from: http://aei.pitt.edu/94367/1/egmont.papers.101_online_v1%2D3.pdf [Accessed 19 February 2021].
Robinson, G., 2016. The Rise of the Risk Paradigm in Criminal Justice. In: C. Trotter, G. McIvor and F. McNeill, eds., Beyond the Risk Paradigm in Criminal Justice. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 9–21. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-44133-1_2
Spence, S., 2020. Right-wing extremism: The new wave of global terrorism. The Conversation [online], 22 October. Available from: https://theconversation.com/right-wing-extremism-the-new-wave-of-global-terrorism-147975 [Accessed 19 February 2021].
Stein, J., and Townsend, M., 2021. Muslim boy, 4, was referred to Prevent over game of Fortnite. The Guardian [online], 31 January. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2021/jan/31/muslim-boy-4-was-referred-to-prevent-over-game-of-fortnite [Accessed 19 February 2021].
Thomas, P., 2017. Changing Experiences of Responsibilisation and Contestation within Counter-Terrorism Policies: the British Prevent Experience. Policy and Politics [online], 45(3), 305–321. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1332/030557317X14943145195580 [Accessed 19 February 2021]. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1332/030557317X14943145195580
Travis, A., 2011. Schools’ counter terrorism project reviewed. The Guardian [online], 11 February. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2011/feb/18/schools-counter-terrorism-project-review [Accessed 19 February 2021].
Travis, A., 2017. Only 5% of people referred to Prevent extremism scheme get specialist help. The Guardian [online], 9 November. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2017/nov/09/only-5-of-people-referred-to-prevent-extremism-scheme-get-specialist-help [Accessed 19 February 2021].
Traynor, I., 2015. The Belgian connections to Islamic radicalism. The Guardian [online], 16 January. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jan/16/belgium-connections-extremism-verviers [Accessed 19 February 2021].
Vertigans, S., 2011. The Sociology of Terrorism. London: Routledge.
Walklate, S., and Mythen, G., 2015. Contradictions of Terrorism: Security, Risk and Resilience. London: Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203102619
Webster, S., Kerr, J., and Tompkins, C., 2017. A Process Evaluation of the Structured Risk Guidance for Extremist Offenders [online]. Prepared for Her Majesty’s Prison and Probation Service. London: HMSO. Available from: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/661787/process-evaluation-srg-extremist-offender-report.pdf [Accessed 19 February 2021].
Wight, C., 2015. Rethinking Terrorism: Terrorism, Violence and the State. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-137-54054-6
Willis, P., 1977. Learning to Labour: How Working Class Kids Get Working Class Jobs. New York: Columbia University Press.
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2021 Gabriel Gray Mythen, Evelyne Baillergeau
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
OSLS strictly respects intellectual property rights and it is our policy that the author retains copyright, and articles are made available under a Creative Commons licence. The Creative Commons Non-Commercial Attribution No-Derivatives licence is our default licence and it regulates how others can use your work. Further details available at https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0 If this is not acceptable to you, please contact us.
The non-exclusive permission you grant to us includes the rights to disseminate the bibliographic details of the article, including the abstract supplied by you, and to authorise others, including bibliographic databases, indexing and contents alerting services, to copy and communicate these details.
For information on how to share and store your own article at each stage of production from submission to final publication, please read our Self-Archiving and Sharing policy.
The Copyright Notice showing the author and co-authors, and the Creative Commons license will be displayed on the article, and you must agree to this as part of the submission process. Please ensure that all co-authors are properly attributed and that they understand and accept these terms.
