Advantages and risks of using alternatives to imprisonment
International legal standards and national law of the Republic of Kazakhstan
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.35295/osls.iisl.2502Keywords:
alternative measures of criminal practice, conditional sentence, imprisonment, punishment, restriction of freedomAbstract
This study rests on a critical analysis of the key objectives and significance of alternatives to imprisonment at both the international and Kazakh legal levels. The study explores the available evidence on the effectiveness of alternatives to imprisonment. The exploration of this topic is indispensable for the formulation of a comprehensive, ethical, and economically sustainable criminal justice framework that aligns with international norms and takes into account the unique characteristics of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Such an endeavor would contribute to the refinement of law enforcement procedures and the overall enhancement of the legal system.
Downloads
Metrics
Global Statistics ℹ️
|
15
Views
|
3
Downloads
|
|
18
Total
|
|
References
Aimukhambetova, K., 2025. The role of the probation institute in the prevention of recidiary crime. The World of Law [online], 5 July. Available at: https://mir-zakona.kz/rol-instituta-probaczii-v-preduprezhdenii-reczidivnoj-prestupnosti/
Akimzhanov, T., et al., 2021. Innovation of structuring the criminal policy as independent section of the new conception of legal policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Journal of Legal, Ethical and Regulatory Issues [online], 24(5), 422–431. Available at: https://www.abacademies.org/articles/innovation-of-structuring-the-criminal-policy-as-independent-section-of-the-new-conception-of-legal-policy-of-the-republic-of-kaza-10827.html
Akkulev, A., 1992. Otdel'nyye voprosy probatsii [Specific probation issues]. Materials of the Council of Europe on the Prevention of Prison Overcrowding. 23 January. Available at: https://online.zakon.kz/Document/?doc_id=31496449&pos=6;-114#pos=6;-114
Al Weswasi, E., and Bäckman, O., 2025. The effects of replacing incarceration with electronic monitoring on crime, mortality, and labor market exclusion. Journal of Quantitative Criminology [online], 41(2), 135–172. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-024-09595-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-024-09595-2
Alshaibani, N., 2025. Implementing alternative sentencing in the criminal justice system: Implications for human rights. The Denning Law Journal [online], 33(1), 381–390. Available at: https://doi.org/10.5750/dlj.v33i1.2360 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5750/dlj.v33i1.2360
Andrews, D. A., and Bonta, J., 2010. Rehabilitating criminal justice policy and practice. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law [online], 16(1), 39–55. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018362 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018362
Aresti, A., and Darke, S., 2015. Open prisons: An ex-prisoner perspective. Prison Service Journal, 217, 14–16.
Baizakova, R. B., Yerezhepkyzy, R., and Zhailau, Z., 2025. Application of alternatives to imprisonment: best world practices and the experience of Kazakhstan. Bulletin of the Institute of Legislation and Legal Information of the Republic of Kazakhstan [online], 80(2), 150–164. Available at: https://doi.org/10.52026/2788-5291_2025_80_2_150 DOI: https://doi.org/10.52026/2788-5291_2025_80_2_150
Bartle, J., 2019. We know that prison doesn’t work. So what are the alternatives? The Guardian [online], 16 August. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/aug/16/we-know-that-prison-doesnt-work-so-what-are-the-alternatives
Beaudry, G., et al., 2021. Effectiveness of psychological interventions in prison to reduce recidivism: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. The Lancet. Psychiatry [online], 8(9), 759–773. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/s2215-0366(21)00170-x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(21)00170-X
Beknazarov, N., 2012. Obshchestvennyye raboty kak pravovoy institute [Community service as a legal framework]. Zakon KZ [online], 13 September. Available at: https://online.zakon.kz/Document/?doc_id=31251645&pos=6;-106#pos=6;-106
Bureau of National Statistics, 2023. Kazakhstan in 2022. Statistical yearbook [online]. Available at: https://stat.gov.kz/upload/iblock/a7b/qlel006sk0tgs1gydt755he9ysur8z1s/%D0%95-04-%D0%93-2018-2022%20%28%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%20%D0%B8%20%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%29.pdf
CISST, 2018. Alternatives to imprisonment [online]. Istanbul: Civil Society in the Penal System Association. Available at: https://cisst.org.tr/alternatives-to-imprisonment-2018/
Cohen, S., 1985. Visions of social control: Crime, punishment and classification. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Committee of Ministers, 2003. Rec(2003)22 - Recommendation of the Committee of Ministers to member states on conditional release (parole) (Adopted by the Committee of Ministers on 24 September 2003 at the 853rd meeting of the Ministers’ Deputies) [online]. Available at: https://search.coe.int/cm?i=09000016805df03f
Council of Europe, 1964. European Convention on the supervision of conditionally sentenced or conditionally released offenders. Strasbourg, 30 November 1964. Europe Treaty Series [online], No. 051. Available at: https://rm.coe.int/168006ff4d
Council of Europe, 2010. Recommendation CM/Rec (2010) 1 on the Council of Europe probation rules (adopted by the Committee of Ministers on 20 January 2010). Materials of the Council of Europe on the prevention of prison overcrowding [online]. Available at: https://rm.coe.int/16800cc249
Council of Europe, 2017. Recommendation CM/Rec (2017) 3 on the European Rules on community sanctions and measures (adopted by the Committee of Ministers on 22 March 2017 at the 1282nd meeting of the Ministers’ deputies) [online]. Strasbourg. Available at: https://rm.coe.int/168070c09b
Council of Europe, 2024. Standards and tools [online]. Available at: https://www.coe.int/en/web/cpt/standards
Coyle, A., 2002. A human rights approach to prison management. Handbook for prison staff. King’s College London.
Darke, S., 2022. Radical alternatives to punitive detention. In: M. Sozzo, ed., Prisons, inmates and governance in Latin America [online]. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 329–363. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-98602-5_11 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-98602-5_11
Dholakia, N., 2024. Electronic monitoring is an extension of mass incarceration. Vera [online], 30 January. Available at: https://www.vera.org/news/electronic-monitoring-is-an-extension-of-mass-incarceration
Ekunwe, I. O., Jones, R. S., and Mullin, K., 2010. Public attitudes toward crime and incarceration in Finland. Social and Cultural Sciences Faculty Research and Publications [online], 154. Available at: https://epublications.marquette.edu/socs_fac/154
Euro Social, 2020. Alternatives to imprisonment, a necessity now and in the future [online]. 11 June. Available at: https://eurosocial.eu/en/actualidad/alternatives-to-imprisonment-a-necessity-now-and-in-the-future/
Fair, H., and Walmsley, R., 2024. World prison population list [online]. ICPR. Available at: https://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/id/eprint/53464/1/World%20Prison%20Population%20List%2014th%20edition.pdf
First Step Alliance, 2024. What we can learn from Norway’s prison system: Rehabilitation & recidivism [online]. 1 May. Available at: https://www.firststepalliance.org/post/norway-prison-system-lessons#:~:text=The%20most%20profound%20benefit:%20Norway,in%20the%20low%20recidivism%20rate
Gazal-Ayal, O., and Roberts, J. V., 2019. Foreword alternatives to imprisonment: Recent international developments. Law & Contemporary Problems [online], 82, 1–9. Available at: https://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4895&context=lcp
Geiran, V., and Durnescu, I., 2019. Implementing community sanctions and measures [online]. Council of Europe: The Directorate General Human Rights and Rule of Law. Available at: https://edoc.coe.int/en/european-prison-reform/8271-implementing-community-sanctions-and-measures.html
Geta, M. R., 2014. Al'ternativy lisheniyu svobody v Respublike Kazakhstan: sovremennoye sostoyaniye i perspektivy [Alternatives to imprisonment in the Republic of Kazakhstan: current state and prospects]. Center for Legal Policy Research supported by the Open Society Institute. Available at: https://lprc.kz/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Alternativy-lisheniyu-svobody-v-Respublike-Kazahstan-sovremennoe-sostoyanie-i-perspektivy.pdf
Giertsen, H., et al., 2019. Norway: Prisons in 2019 [online]. Report. Prison Insider. Available at: https://www.prison-insider.com/files/de35b58b/190527_norge_countryprofile_no.pdf
Häkkinen, E., 2020. Welfare state development and Finnish criminal justice reform from the 1910s to the 1960s. Punishment & Society [online], 24, 116–135. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/1462474520964939 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1462474520964939
Human Trafficking Search, 2022. Global prison trends 2022 [online]. Penal Reform International/Thailand Institute of Justice. Available at: https://humantraffickingsearch.org/resource/global-prison-trends-2022/
Johnsen, B., and Fridhov, I. M., 2018. Offender resettlement in Norway: Positive principles–challenging practices. In: F. Dünkel et al., eds., Prisoner resettlement in Europe [online]. London: Routledge, 252–264. Available at: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315194592-15 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315194592-15
Justice Trends, 2016. Full rights citizens: The principle of normality in Norwegian prisons [online]. 24 July. Available at: https://justice-trends.press/full-rights-citizens-the-principle-of-normality-in-norwegian-prisons/
Kabzhanov, A., Turlayev, A., and Tapakova, V., 2023. Comparative analysis of the criminal law institution “Expulsion from the Republic of Kazakhstan of a foreigner or stateless person”. Bulletin of the Karaganda University. “Law Series” [online], 109(1), 58–65. Available at: https://doi.org/10.31489/2023l1/58-65 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31489/2023L1/58-65
Karpuntsov, V., and Veresha, R. 2023. Legal Aspects of Virtual Assets Regulation in Ukraine. Danube [online], 14(3), 235–252. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2478/danb-2023-0014 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/danb-2023-0014
Kazpravda, 2025. The head of the Supreme Court reported to Tokayev on the work of the judicial system. Kazpravda [online], 25 August. Available at: https://kazpravda.kz/n/glava-verhovnogo-suda-dolozhil-tokaevu-o-rabote-sudebnoy-sistemy
Korsakov, K. V., 2018. Efficiency of criminal punishment and alternative measures of impact on criminals: A comparative analysis. Russian Law: Education, Practice, Researches, 2, 28–33. DOI: https://doi.org/10.34076/2410-2709-2018-2-28-34
Lahti, R., 2021. Life imprisonment and other long-term sentences in the Finnish criminal justice system: Fluctuations in penal policy. In: K. Ghanayim and Y Shany, eds., The quest for core values in the application of legal norms [online]. Cham: Springer, 201–217. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78953-4_12 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78953-4_12
Lahti, R., 2023. Criminal policy and sanctions in the 2020s and onwards: Determinants of penal culture in Finland during the last 150 years. Archives of Criminology [online], 45(2), 67–83. Available at: https://doi.org/10.7420/ak2023.06 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7420/AK2023.06
Lappi-Seppälä, T., 2008. Controlling prisoner rates: Experiences from Finland. UNAFEI Resource Material Series, 74, 3–19.
Lappi-Seppälä, T., 2009. Imprisonment and penal policy in Finland. Scandinavian Studies in Law, 54, 335–347.
Lappi-Seppälä, T., 2011. Explaining national differences in the use of imprisonment. In: S. Snacken and E. Dumortier, eds., Resisting punitiveness in Europe? Welfare, human rights and democracy. London: Routledge, 35–72.
Lappi-Seppälä, T., 2017. Sentencing and sanctions in Finland. Peking University Law Journal [online], 5, 101–137. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/20517483.2017.1330811 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/20517483.2017.1330811
Lešková, L., Ilavská, L., and Martín, J., 2022. Alternative punishment as a suitable alternative to imprisonment. Journal of Education Culture and Society [online], 13(2), 39–54. Available at: https://doi.org/10.15503/jecs2022.2.39.54 DOI: https://doi.org/10.15503/jecs2022.2.39.54
LPRC, 2011. Sokrashcheniye tyuremnogo naseleniya v Kazakhstane [Reduction of the prison population in Kazakhstan]. Available at: https://lprc.kz/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Sokrashhenie-tyuremnogo-naseleniya-v-Kazahstane.pdf
Miller, B., et al., 2022. Examining sanction type and drug offender recidivism: A register-based study in Finland. American Journal of Criminal Justice [online], 47, 836–854. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-020-09592-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-020-09592-8
Ministry of Justice and Public Security, 2001. Act relating to the execution of sentences etc. (The Execution of Sentences Act) [online]. Available at: https://lovdata.no/dokument/NLE/lov/2001-05-18-21
Musali, N., 2024. The system of criminal punishments under the new criminal code of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Gaps in Russian Legislation. Law Journal [online], 17(1), 144–148. Available at: https://doi.org/10.33693/2072-3164-2024-17-1-144-148 DOI: https://doi.org/10.33693/2072-3164-2024-17-1-144-148
OHCHR, 1990. United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for Non-custodial Measures (The Tokyo Rules) [online]. Available at: https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/tokyorules.pdf
Parkhomenko, A., 2017. V Shvetsii tyur'my zakryvayut, a v Niderlandakh – pereprofiliruyut [Prisons are being closed in Sweden, and repurposed in the Netherlands]. Bulletin of the Penal Enforcement System [online], 6, 77–79. Available at: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/v-shvetsii-tyurmy-zakryvayut-a-v-niderlandah-pereprofiliruyut
Penal Reform International, 2016. Sbornik otchetov obshchestvennykh nablyudatel'nykh komissiy (ONK) o rezul'tatakh nezavisimogo monitoringa mest lisheniya svobody i deyatel'nosti po predotvrashcheniyu pytok i drugikh zhestokikh, beschelovechnykh ili unizhayushchikh dostoinstvo vidov obrashcheniya i nakazaniya v Kazakhstane za 2015 [Compendium of reporting of public monitoring commissions (ONK) on the results of independent monitoring places of deprivation of liberty and prevention activities torture and other cruel, inhuman or humiliating acts the dignity of treatment and punishment in Kazakhstan for 2015] (online). Available at: https://cdn.penalreform.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/%D0%9E%D0%A2%D0%A7%D0%95%D0%A2-%D0%9E%D0%9D%D0%9A-%D0%B7%D0%B0-2015.pdf
Penal Reform International, 2022a. 10-point plan: Crisis-ready non-custodial sanctions and measures [online]. Available at: https://tinyurl.com/3y2xa42t
Penal Reform International, 2022b. Report Non-custodial sanctions and measures in the member states of the European Union: A comparative study [online]. Available at: https://www.penalreform.org/resource/non-custodial-sanctions-and-measures-eu-comparative-study/
Penal Reform International, 2024. A new five-year Strategy: Criminal justice reform with human rights at its core [online]. Available at: https://www.penalreform.org/resource/2024-2028-strategy-for-penal-reform-international/
Plesnicar, M. M., and Tripkovic, M., 2024. Communicating confidence: Suspended sentences as communicative punishment. Legal Records/Pravni Zapisi [online], 15(1), 239–271. Available at: https://doi.org/10.5937/pravzap0-50554 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5937/pravzap0-50554
Rakhimberdin, K., 2021. Al'ternativy lisheniyu svobody v Respublike Kazakhstan: sovremennoye sostoyaniye i perspektivy [Alternatives to imprisonment in the Republic of Kazakhstan: current state and prospects]. KMBPČ [online]. Available at: https://bureau.kz/analiz/kommentarii_i_zaklyucheniya/alternativy-lisheniyu-svobody/
Rakhimberdin, K., and Geta, J. R., 2020. Qazaqstandaği probacïya: Qazirgi kezeñdegi qaliptasw men damwdiñ biregey täjirïbes [Probation in Kazakhstan: Unique experience of formation and development at the present stage]. Scientific and Legal Journal “Bulletin of the Institute of Legislation and Legal Information of the Republic of Kazakhstan” [online], 4(62), 92–96. Available at: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/aza-standa-y-probatsiya-azirgi-keze-degi-alyptasu-men-damudy-biregey-t-zhiribes DOI: https://doi.org/10.52026/1994-408X_2020_62_4_91
Rakhmetov, S. M., 2022. Ugolovno-pravovaya politika Respubliki Kazakhstan, napravlennaya na sovershenstvovaniye sistemy nakazaniy [Criminal-legal policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan aimed at improving the punishment system]. Criminal Policy of Kazakhstan until 2030: A New Look and Prospects: Proceedings of the International Round Table, Nur-Sultan, March 11, 2022 [online]. Nur-Sultan: KAZGUU University named after M. S. Narikbaev, 66–76. Available at: https://parlaminst-mtqb.qr-pib.kz/images/attachments/sb-kazgyuu-2022-dzhekebayev-u-s-95-letiye-11-03-22-653636f351dd9396234401.pdf
Richter, M., Ryser, B., and Hostettler, U., 2021. Punitiveness of electronic monitoring: Perception and experience of an alternative sanction. European Journal of Probation [online], 13(3), 262-281. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/20662203211038489 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/20662203211038489
Riegler, E., 2022. More prisons, further away: A closer look at the expanding global prison estate. Penal Reform [online], 6 July. Available at: https://www.penalreform.org/blog/more-prisons-further-away-a-closer-look/
Salamatov, E. A., 2017. Dinamika snizheniya «tyuremnogo naseleniya» cherez prizmu penitentsiarnoy sistemy [Dynamics of the decrease in the prison population through the lens of the penitentiary system]. Zakon KZ [online], 22 February. Available at: https://online.zakon.kz/Document/?doc_id=36919737
Salamatov, E. A., 2019. Ob arkhaichnosti i pravoprimenitel'noy nichtozhnosti nakazaniya v vide ispravitel'nykh rabot [On the archaism and law enforcement nullity of the punishment in the form of correctional labor]. Zakon [online]. Available at: https://www.zakon.kz/stati/4955445-ob-arhaichnosti-i-pravoprimenitelnoy.html
Shestakova, S., and Solovev, A., 2020. The judicial fine as the type of transaction. Vestnik of the St Petersburg University of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia, 2(86), 143–152. DOI: https://doi.org/10.35750/2071-8284-2020-2-143-152
Sipos, F., 2020. A közérdekű munka szerepe a börtönnépesség csökkentésében: a finn tapasztalatok. Pro Futuro [online], 7(2), 81-96. Available at: https://doi.org/10.26521/Profuturo/2017/2/4764 DOI: https://doi.org/10.26521/Profuturo/2017/2/4764
Skakov, A. B., 2018. Povysheniye effektivnosti ugolovno-ispolnitel'noy politiki Kazakhstana i Rossii v sfere ispolneniya nakazaniy, al'ternativnykh lisheniyu svobody, i sotsial'noy adaptatsii [Improving the efficiency of penal enforcement policies in Kazakhstan and Russia in the field of execution of alternatives to imprisonment and social isolation]. Man: Crime and Punishment [online], 26(1-4), 154–161. Available at: https://vestnik.astu.org/temp/452b459bfc61c425237c4b0f514c6a6e.pdf
Slade, G., Trochev, A., and Piacentini, L., 2023. Unlikely downsizers: The prison service’s role in reversing mass incarceration in Kazakhstan. Theoretical Criminology [online], 27(4), 573–596. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/13624806231177020 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/13624806231177020
Stam, M., et al., 2024. The effects of imprisonment length on recidivism: A judge stringency instrumental variable approach. Journal of Experimental Criminology [online], 20, 973–1004. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-023-09566-w DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-023-09566-w
Törnudd, P., 1993. Fifteen years of decreasing prisoner rates in Finland. National Research Institute of Legal Policy.
Tyufyakov, N. A., 2017. Changing the type of correctional institution for convicts sentenced to deprivation of liberty in the penitentiary law of foreign countries. Psychopedagogy in Law Enforcement, 3(70), 55–60.
Ugelvik, T., and Dullum, J., eds., 2011. Penal exceptionalism? Nordic prison policy and practice. London: Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203813270
UNHCR, 2022. Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 16 December 2021 (Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees) [online]. 6 January. Available at: https://www.unhcr.org/media/resolution-adopted-general-assembly-16-december-2021-office-united-nations-high-commissioner
UNODC, 2007. Handbook of basic principles and promising practices on alternatives to imprisonment. (Sales No. E.07.XI.2) [online]. Available at: https://www.unodc.org/documents/justice-and-prison-reform/crimeprevention/Handbook_of_basic_principles_and_promising_practices_on_Alternatives_to_Imprisonment.pdf
UNODC, 2010. Mery, svyazannyye i ne svyazannyye s lisheniyem svobody. Al'ternativy tyuremnomu zaklyucheniyu/ Posobiye po otsenke sistem ugolovnogo pravosudiya [Measures related and unrelated to deprivation of liberty. Alternatives to imprisonment. Handbook on the evaluation of criminal justice systems] (online). Available at: https://www.unodc.org/pdf/criminal_justice/10-52547_3_Custodial_3_ebook.pdf
UNODC, 2015. The United Nations standard minimum rules for the treatment of prisoners (the Nelson Mandela rules) [online]. Available at: https://www.unodc.org/documents/justice-and-prison-reform/Nelson_Mandela_Rules-E-ebook.pdf
UNODC, 2024a. Alternatives to imprisonment [online]. Available at: https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/justice-and-prison-reform/cpcj-alternatives-to-imprisonment.html
UNODC, 2024b. Prison matters 2024: Global prison trends; a focus on rehabilitation [online]. Available at: https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/briefs/Prison_brief_2024.pdf
Urbissinova, N., Alimpiyeva, T., and Koshkinbayeva, A., 2025. Proportionality and achievement of the goals of criminal punishment: Problematic issues and solutions. Bulletin of the Institute of Legislation and Legal Information of the Republic of Kazakhstan [online], 80(2), 165–176. Available at: https://doi.org/10.52026/2788-5291_2025_80_2_165 DOI: https://doi.org/10.52026/2788-5291_2025_80_2_165
Utkin, V. A., 2018. Problems of the theory of criminal punishment. Tomsk State University.
Van De Rijt, J., Van Ginneken, E., and Boone, M., 2022. Lost in translation: The principle of normalisation in prison policy in Norway and the Netherlands. Punishment & Society [online], 25(3), 766–783. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/14624745221103823 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/14624745221103823
Veresha, R., 2017. Criminal and legal characteristics of criminal intent. Journal of financial crime [online], 24(1), 118–128. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1108/JFC-02-2016-0013 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/JFC-02-2016-0013
Villman, E., 2024. Early release from prison with electronic monitoring: Hook for or hindrance to change? Criminology & Criminal Justice [online], 24(1), 184–203. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/17488958221080887 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/17488958221080887
Wermink, H., et al., 2023. Estimating effects of short-term imprisonment on crime using random judge assignments. Justice Quarterly [online], 41(3), 317–346. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2023.2193618 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2023.2193618
Willis, M., and Kapira, M., 2018. Justice reinvestment in Australia: A review of the literature. Research Report no. 9 [online]. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology. Available at: https://doi.org/10.52922/rr204730 DOI: https://doi.org/10.52922/ti204730
World Prison Brief, 2024. Prison populations continue to rise in many parts of the world, with 11.5 million held in prisons worldwide [online]. 1 May. Available at: https://www.prisonstudies.org/news/prison-populations-continue-rise-many-parts-world-115-million-held-prisons-worldwide
Zvekić, U., 1994. Alternatives to imprisonment in comparative perspective. Volume 1. Boston: Nelson-Hall.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Raushan Baizakova, Aizhan Satbayeva, Binur Taitorina, Murat Beibitov, Alida Alimbetova
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
OSLS strictly respects intellectual property rights and it is our policy that the author retains copyright, and articles are made available under a Creative Commons licence. The Creative Commons Non-Commercial Attribution No-Derivatives licence is our default licence and it regulates how others can use your work. Further details available at https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0 If this is not acceptable to you, please contact us.
The non-exclusive permission you grant to us includes the rights to disseminate the bibliographic details of the article, including the abstract supplied by you, and to authorise others, including bibliographic databases, indexing and contents alerting services, to copy and communicate these details.
For information on how to share and store your own article at each stage of production from submission to final publication, please read our Self-Archiving and Sharing policy.
The Copyright Notice showing the author and co-authors, and the Creative Commons license will be displayed on the article, and you must agree to this as part of the submission process. Please ensure that all co-authors are properly attributed and that they understand and accept these terms.
