A history of abuse

Documenting the harms experienced by the “Trainspotting generation”

Authors

  • Samantha Weston Keele University

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.35295/osls.iisl/0000-0000-0000-1172

Keywords:

drug use, addiction, social harm, stigmatisation, mental health

Abstract

The story of the past 30 years has been the relentless hollowing-out of industrial Britain, the single biggest change to the British economy in the post-war era. During this period, whole communities have become destabilised by mass long-term unemployment resulting in discarded generations that have been excluded socially and economically from the benefits widely available to those in work (Hutton, 1996; Buchanan, 2000). It has been against this backdrop that the youth of the 80s and 90s turned to heroin in an attempt to block out the harsh social and economic realities of their lives (Buchanan and Wyke, 1987). Drawing on semi-structured interviews with twelve opiate-involved users (OIUs), this paper illuminates the harms experienced by those who began their drug taking during the 80s and 90s. Particularly, I argue that the negative consequences brought about by the broad umbrella of drug treatment policy that adopts a framework of risk-based strategies designed to regulate and control drug users has had a cumulative effect contributing to further experiences of stigma, unemployment, physical and mental ill health.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

        Metrics

Views 862
Downloads:
PDF 494
XML 204


Author Biography

Samantha Weston, Keele University

Senior Lecturer in Criminology

School of Social, Political and Global Studies

University of Keele

Keele

ST5 5BG

 

Tel: 01782 734336

Orchid number: orcid.org/0000-0001-8179-3273

 

References

Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs, 1982. Treatment and Rehabilitation. London: HMSO.

Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs, 1991. Drug Misusers and the Criminal Justice System Part 1: Community Resources and the Probation Service. London: HMSO.

Andersson, H., Wenaas, M., and Nordfjaern, T., 2019. Relapse after inpatient substance use treatment: A prospective cohort study among users of illicit substances. Addictive Behaviours [online], 90, 222–228. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.11.008 [Access 23 September 2020].

Bacon, M., and Seddon, T., 2019. Controlling drug users: Forms of power and behavioural regulation in drug treatment services. The British Journal of Criminology [online], 60(2). Available from: https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azz055 [Access 23 September 2020].

BBC News, 2011. PM vows action to get addicts on benefits into work. BBC News [online], 21 April. Available from: https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-13152349 [Access 3 May 2011].

Berridge, V., 1996. AIDS in the UK: The Making of a Policy, 1981–1994. Oxford University Press.

Best, D., and Laudet, A.B., 2010. The potential of recovery capital [online]. London: The RSA. Available from: https://www.thersa.org/globalassets/pdfs/blogs/a4-recovery-capital-230710-v5.pdf [Access 23 September 2020].

Bourdieu, P., 1985. The Forms of Capital. In: J.G. Richardson, ed., Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education. New York: Greenwood.

Bourgois, P., 2000. Disciplining addictions: The bio-politics of methadone and heroin in the United States. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry [online], 24, 165–195. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005574918294 [Access 23 September 2020].

Bryan, J., 2013. Methadone may not be the perfect drug but it has helped many drug addicts. The Pharmaceutical Journal [online], 16 October. Available from: https://www.pharmaceutical-journal.com/news-and-analysis/methadone-may-not-be-the-perfect-drug-but-it-has-helped-many-drug-addicts/11128731.article?firstPass=false [Access 23 September 2020].

Buchanan, J., 2004. Missing links? Problem drug users and social exclusion. Probation Journal [online], 51(4), 387–397. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1177/0264550504048246 [Access 23 September 2020].

Buchanan, J., 2006. Understanding Problematic Drug Use: A Medical Matter or a Social Issue? British Journal of Community Justice, 4(2), 387–397.

Buchanan, J., 2015. Ending drug prohibition with a hangover? British Journal of Community Justice, 15(1), 55–74.

Buchanan, J., and Wyke, G., 1987. Drug Use and Its Implications: A Study of the Sefton Probation Area. Waterloo: Merseyside Probation Service.

Buchanan, J., and Young, L., 2000. The War on Drugs – A War on Drug Users? Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy [online], 7(4), 409–422. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/dep.7.4.409.422 [Access 23 September 2020].

Bull, M., 2008. Governing the Heroin Trade: From Treaties to Treatment. Aldershot: Ashgate.

Butler, J., 2016. Frames of War: When is Life Grievable? New York: Verso.

Coleman, J., 1988. Social Capital in the creation of human capital. American Journal of Sociology [online], 94(1), 95–121. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1086/228943 [Access 23 September 2020].

Cornish, R., et al., 2010. Risk of death during and after opiate substitution treatment in primary care: Prospective observational study in UK General Practice Research Database. The British Medical Journal [online], 341. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.c5475 [Access 23 September 2020].

Department of Health and Social Services, 1988. Models of general practitioner involvement in working with misusers. Health Circular 88/53. London: Department of Health.

Doyal, L., and Gough, I., 1991. A Theory of Human Need. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Druss, B., et al., 2011. Understanding excess mortality in persons with mental illness: 17 year follow up of a nationally representative US survey. Medical Care [online], 49(6), 599–604. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1097/MLR.0b013e31820bf86e [Access 23 September 2020].

Duke, K., 2006. Out of crime and into treatment?: The criminalization of contemporary drug policy since Tackling Drugs Together. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy [online], 13(5), 409–415. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/09687630600613520 [Access 23 September 2020].

Duke, K., 2010. Clashes in Culture? The professionalization and criminalization of the drugs workforce. British Journal of Community Justice, Special Edition, 8(2), 31–43.

Engels, F., 1987. The Condition of the Working Class in England. Harmondsworth: Penguin. (Originally published in 1845).

Field, J., 2003. Social Capital. London: Routledge.

Flynn, P.M., and Brown, B.S., 2008. Co-occurring disorders in substance abuse treatment: Issues and prospects. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment [online], 34(1), 36–47. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2006.11.013 [Access 23 September 2020].

Fraser, S., and Valentine, K., 2008. Substance and Substitution: Methadone Subjects in Liberal Societies. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Fraser, S., Farrugia, A. and Dwyer, R., 2018. Grievable lives? Death by opioid overdose in Australian newspaper coverage. The International Journal of Drug Treatment Policy [online], 59, 28–35. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.06.004 [Access 23 September 2020].

Friedman, J., and Alicea, M., 2001. Surviving Heroin: Interviews with Women in Methadone Clinics. Gainesville: University Press of Florida.

Glaser, B., and Strauss, A., 1967. The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research. Chicago: Aldine.

Gossop, M., 2015. The National Treatment Outcomes Research Study (NTORS) and its influence on addiction treatment policy in the United Kingdom. Addiction [online], 110(S2), 50–53. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/add.12906 [Access 23 September 2020].

Gossop, M., et al., 2002. Factors associated with abstinence, lapse and or relapse to heroin use after residential treatment: protective effect of coping responses. Addiction [online], 97(10), 1259–67. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2002.00227.x [Access 23 September 2020].

Gossop, M., et al., 2005. Reductions in criminal convictions after addiction treatment: 5–year follow-up. Drug and Alcohol Dependence [online], 79(3), 295–302. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2005.01.023 [Access 23 September 2020].

Gossop, M., Marsden, J., and Stewart, D., 1998. NTORS at one year. The National Treatment Outcomes Research Study. Changes in substance use, health and criminal behaviour at one after intake. London: Department of Health.

Grella, C., and Lovinger, K., 2012. Gender differences in physical and mental health outcomes among an aging cohort of individuals with a history of heroin dependence. Addictive Behaviours [online], 37(3), 306–312. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2011.11.028 [Access 23 September 2020].

Hammerbacher, M., and Lyvers, M., 2009. Factors associated with relapse among clients in Australian substance disorder treatment facilities. Journal of Substance Use [online], 11(6), 387–394. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/14659890600708266 [Access 23 September 2020].

Hillyard, P., and Tombs, S., 2004. Beyond criminology? In: P. Hillyard et al., eds., Beyond Criminology: Taking Harm Seriously. London: Pluto Press.

HM Government, 2010. Drug Strategy 2010 Reducing Demand, Restricting Supply, Building Recovery: Supporting People to Live a Drug Free Life [online]. London: Home Office. Available from: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/98026/drug-strategy-2010.pdf [Access 23 September 2020].

Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T., and Layton, J., 2010. Social Relationships and Mortality Risk: A Meta-analytic Review. PLoS Med [online], 7(7). Available from: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000316 [Access 23 September 2020].

Hough, M., 1996. Drug Misusers and the Criminal Justice System: A Review of the Literature. London: Home Office.

House, J., Landis, K., and Umberson, D., 1988. Social relationships and health. Science [online], 241(4865), 540–545. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.3399889 [Access 23 September 2020].

Hser, Y., et al., 2004. Health conditions among aging narcotics addicts: Medical examination results. Journal of Behavioural Medicine [online], 27(6), 607–622. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-004-0005-x [Access 23 September 2020].

Hunt, N., and Stevens, A., 2004. Whose harm? Harm reduction and the shift to coercion in UK drug policy. Social Policy and Society [online], 3(4), 333–342. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1474746404001964 [Access 23 September 2020].

Jones, A., et al., 2007. The Drug Treatment Outcomes Research Study (DTORS): Baseline Report. London: Home Office.

Jones, A., et al., 2009. The Drug Treatment Outcomes Research Study (DTORS): Final Outcomes Report. London: Home Office.

Kalk, N., et al., 2017. Treatment and intervention for opiate dependence in the United Kingdom: Lessons from triumph and failure. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research [online], 24(2), 183–200. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10610-017-9364-z [Access 23 September 2020].

Kamal, M., 2019. Austerity and the Damage Done: The Crisis in Mental Health Care. Counterfire [online], 18 February. Available from: https://www.counterfire.org/articles/opinion/20160-austerity-and-the-damage-done-the-crisis-in-mental-health-care [Access 1 October 2019].

Kemp, P.A., and Neale, J., 2005. Employability and problem drug users. Critical Social Policy [online], 25, 28–46. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1177/0261018305048966 [Access 23 September 2020].

Lind, B., et al., 2005. The effectiveness of methadone maintenance treatment in controlling crime: An Australian aggregate level analysis. The British Journal of Criminology [online], 45(2), 201–211. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azh085 [Access 23 September 2020].

McKeganey, N., 2006. The lure and the loss of harm reduction in UK drug policy and practice, Addiction Research and Theory [online], 14(6), 557–588. https://doi.org/10.1080/16066350601002369 [Access 23 September 2020].

Millar, T., and Webb, R., 2019. Strong evidence indicating the effectiveness of opioid agonist treatment, The Lancet Public Health [online], 4(7), 314–315. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(19)30100-8 [Access 23 September 2020].

Millar, T., et al., 2008. Changes in Offending following Prescribing Treatment for Drug Misuse [online]. London: National Treatment Agency for Substance Misuse. Available from: https://www.bl.uk/britishlibrary/~/media/bl/global/social-welfare/pdfs/non-secure/c/h/a/changes-in-offending-following-prescribing-treatment-for-drug-misuse.pdf [Access 23 September 2020].

O’Connor, R., 2018. Drug Misuse Deaths Fall but Still Remain Too High. (Blog post). Public Health Matters [online], 8 August. Available from: https://publichealthmatters.blog.gov.uk/2018/08/08/drug-misuse-deaths-fall-but-still-remain-too-high/ [Access 1 July 2019].

Office for National Statistics, 2018. Deaths Related to Drug Poisoning in England and Wales: 2017 registrations [online]. Newport/Titchfield/London: ONS. Available from: https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/deaths/bulletins/deathsrelatedtodrugpoisoninginenglandandwales/2017registrations [Access 2 July 2019].

Panebianco, D., et al., 2015. Personal support networks, social capital, and risk of relapse among individuals treated for substance use issues. International Journal of Drug Policy [online], 27, 146–153. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2015.09.009 [Access 23 September 2020].

Pearson, G., 1987a. Social Deprivation, Unemployment and Patterns of Heroin Use. In: N. Dorn and N. South, eds., A Land Fit for Heroin? London: Macmillan.

Pearson, G., 1987b. The New Heroin Users. Oxford: Blackwell.

Pemberton, S., 2016. Harmful Societies: Understanding Social Harm. Bristol: Policy Press.

Pierce, M., et al., 2016. Impact of treatment for opioid dependence on fatal drug-related poisoning: a national cohort study in England. Addiction [online], 111(2), 298–308. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/add.13193 [Access 23 September 2020].

Pierce, M., et al., 2018. Ageing opioid users’ increased risk of methadone-specific death in the UK. International Journal of Drug Policy [online], 55, 121–127. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.02.005 [Access 23 September 2020].

Putnam, R., 1995. Bowling Alone: America’s Declining Social Capital. Journal of Democracy [online], 6(1), 65–78. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.1995.0002 [Access 23 September 2020].

Putnam, R.D., 2000. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. London: Simon & Schuster.

Ralph, N., Birks, M., and Chapman, Y., 2015. The Methodological Dynamism of Grounded Theory. International Journal of Qualitative Methods [online], 14, 1–6. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406915611576 [Access 23 September 2020].

Reuter, P., and Stevens, A., 2008. Assessing UK Drug Policy from a Crime Control Perspective. Criminology and Criminal Justice [online], 8(4), 461–482. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1177/1748895808096473 [Access 23 September 2020].

Revolving Doors, 2010. 2010 Drugs Strategy Consultation: Revolving Doors Agency Response, 30 September 2010. London: Revolving Doors.

Rosenbaum, M., 1997. The de-medicalization of methadone maintenance. In: P. Erickson et al., eds., Harm Reduction. University of Toronto Press.

Russolillo, A., et al., 2018. Associations between methadone maintenance treatment and crime: A 17-year longitudinal cohort study of Canadian provincial offenders. Addiction [online], 113(4), 656–667. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/add.14059 [Access 23 September 2020].

Schwendingers (The), H. and J., 1970. Defenders of order or guardians of human rights. Issues in Criminology [online], 5(2), 123–157. Available from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/42909616 [Access 23 September 2020].

Seddon, T., 2011. What is a problem drug user? Addiction Research and Theory [online], 19(4), 334–343. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3109/16066359.2010.512109 [Access 23 September 2020].

Seddon, T., Ralphs, R., and Williams, L., 2008. Risk, Security and the “Criminalization” of British Drug Policy. British Journal of Criminology [online], 48(6), 818–834. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azn056 [Access 23 September 2020].

Seddon, T., Williams, L. and Ralphs, R., 2012. Tough Choices: Risk, Security and the Criminalisation of Drug Policy. Oxford University Press.

Simmonds, L., and Coomber, R., 2009. Injecting drug users: A stigmatized and stigmatizing population. International Journal of Drug Policy [online], 20(2), 121–130. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2007.09.002 [Access 23 September 2020].

Smith, K., and Anderson, R., 2017. Understanding lay perspectives on socioeconomic health inequalities in Britain: A meta ethnography. Sociology of Health and Illness [online], 40(1), 146–170. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9566.12629.

Spencer, J., et al., 2008. Getting Problem Drug users (Back) Into Employment: Part Two [online]. Evidence Review. December. London: UKDPC. Available from: https://www.ukdpc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/Evidence%20review%20-%20Getting%20problem%20drug%20users%20(back)%20into%20employment_%20employer,%20provider%20and%20service%20user%20perspectives.pdf [Access 23 September 2020].

Stevens, A., 2007. When two dark figures collide: Evidence and discourse on drug-related crime. Critical Social Policy [online], 27(1), 77–99. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1177/0261018307072208 [Access 23 September 2020].

Stevens, A., 2019. “Being human” and “moral sidestep” in drug policy: Explaining government inaction on opioid-related deaths in the UK. Addicitve Behaviors [online], 90, 444–450. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.08.036 [Access 23 September 2020].

Stimson, G., et al., 1990. Distributing sterile needles and syringes to people who inject drugs: the syringe exchange experiment. In: J. Strang and G. Stimson, eds., Aids and Drug Misuse: The Challenges for Policy and Practice in the 1990s. London: Routledge.

Stimson, G.V., 2000. Blair Declares War: the unhealthy state of British drug policy. International Journal on Drug Policy [online], 11(4), 259–264. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0955-3959(00)00060-8 [Access 23 September 2020].

Strauss, A., and Corbin, J., 1990. Basics of Grounded Theory Methods. Beverly Hills: Sage.

Sutherland, E., 1945. Is “White Collar Crime” a Crime? American Sociological Review [online], 10(2), 132–139. Available from: https://doi.org/10.2307/2085628 [Access 23 September 2020].

Sutton, L., et al., 2004. Drug and alcohol use as barriers to employment: a review of the literature. Report. Loughborough University, for Department for Work and Pensions.

Szasz, T., 2003. Ceremonial Chemistry: The Ritual Persecution of Drugs, Addicts, and Pushers. Syracuse University Press.

Terrion, L.J., 2013. The experience of post-secondary education for students in recovery from addiction to drugs or alcohol: Relationships and recovery capital. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships [online], 30(1), 3–23. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407512448276 [Access 23 September 2020].

Watkins, K.E., et al., 2004. Prevalence and characteristics of clients with co-occurring disorders in outpatient substance abuse treatment. Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse [online], 30(4), 749–764. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1081/ADA-200037538 [Access 23 September 2020].

Weaver, T., et al., 2003. Comorbidity of substance misuse and mental illness in community mental health and substance misuse services. British Journal of Psychiatry [online], 183(4), 304–313. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.183.4.304 [Access 23 September 2020].

Webster, R., 2015. Is the Drug Strategy Working? [online]. Blog post. 12 March. Available from: http://www.russellwebster.com/is-the-drug-strategy-working/ [Access 1 October 2019].

Weston, S., 2016. The everyday work of the drug treatment practitioner: The influence and constraints of a risk-based agenda. Critical Social Policy [online], 36(4), 511–530. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1177/0261018316632666 [Access 23 September 2020].

Weston, S., Honor, S., and Best, D., 2018. A tale of two towns: A comparative study exploring the possibilities and pitfalls of social capital among people seeking recovery from substance misuse. Substance Use and Misuse [online], 53(3). Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2017.1341925 [Access 23 September 2020].

Woolcock, M., 2001. Using Social Capital: Getting the Social Relations Right in the Theory and Practice of Economic Development. Princeton University Press.

World Health Organization Collaborative Study Group, 1993. An international comparative study of HIV prevalence and risk behaviour among drug injectors in 13 cities. Bulletin on Narcotics, XLV, 19.

World Health Organization, 2015. Mental Health Atlas 2014 [online]. Available from: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/178879/1/9789241565011_eng.pdf?ua=1&ua=1. [Access 6 November 2019].

Yar, M., 2012. Critical criminology, critical theory and social harm. In: S. Hall and S. Winlow, eds., New Directions in Criminological Theory, Abingdon: Routledge.

Zywiak, W., et al., 2009. The Important People drug and alcohol interview: Psychometric properties, predictive validity and implications for treatment. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment [online], 36(3), 321–330. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2008.08.001 [Access 23 September 2020].

Downloads

Published

01-10-2021

How to Cite

Weston, S. (2021) “A history of abuse: Documenting the harms experienced by the ‘Trainspotting generation’”, Oñati Socio-Legal Series, 11(5), pp. 1153–1178. doi: 10.35295/osls.iisl/0000-0000-0000-1172.